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El-Ramady, H. Soil Nanomanagement and Mushrooms. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/21686 (accessed on 04 July 2024).
El-Ramady H. Soil Nanomanagement and Mushrooms. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/21686. Accessed July 04, 2024.
El-Ramady, Hassan. "Soil Nanomanagement and Mushrooms" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/21686 (accessed July 04, 2024).
El-Ramady, H. (2022, April 13). Soil Nanomanagement and Mushrooms. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/21686
El-Ramady, Hassan. "Soil Nanomanagement and Mushrooms." Encyclopedia. Web. 13 April, 2022.
Soil Nanomanagement and Mushrooms
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/su14074328

Soil is the main component in the agroecosystem besides water, microbial communities, and cultivated plants. Several problems face soil, including soil pollution, erosion, salinization, and degradation on a global level. Many approaches have been applied to overcome these issues, such as phyto-, bio-, and nanoremediation through different soil management tools. Mushrooms can play a vital role in the soil through bio-nanoremediation, especially under the biological synthesis of nanoparticles, which could be used in the bioremediation process. 

soil mushroom

1. Green Synthesis of Nanoparticles by Mushrooms

It is well-known that nanoparticles (converted to atomic or molecular scales ranging from 1 and 100 nm) could be produced by three main methods, including physical (using mechanical tools such as for grinding or milling), chemical (using some chemicals as deducting agents), and biological tools (using organisms such as plants, bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, and algae). The production process or the synthesis of stable nanoparticles (NPs) through biological routes could be referred to as green nano-biotechnology [1]. The green chemistry of nanotechnology has mainly 12 principles, including (1) minimizing the production of wastes and reducing pollution, (2) the manufacturing of products in safer manner, (3) lowering toxicity due to less hazardous chemical synthesis, (4) using renewable feedstocks, (5) utilizing effective catalysts, (6) reducing unnecessary derivatives, (7) producing economically greener products, (8) controlling and reducing pollution, (9) increasing the efficiency of used energy, (10) using safer solvents for safer reaction conditions, (11) using degradable and recyclable materials, and (12) minimizing the possibility of accidents [1]. The biosynthesis of nanoparticles using fungi has been reported by several researchers, focusing on the genera of fungi used in NPs biosynthesis, the bio-activity of this biosynthesis, and the main applications resulting from this biosynthesis (Figure 1), as adapted from Al-Bahrani et al. [2].
Figure 1. Graphical illustration for the green synthesis of metal nanoparticles using aqueous extract of the fresh basidiocarps of Pleurotus ostreatus. The steps include grinding the collected mushrooms, boiling within aqueous extraction, and then after filtration, the aqueous extraction is added to metal salt, which is needed to produce its nanoparticles (such as Ag, Zn, Cu, etc.).
Concerning the fungal genera used for NPs-biosynthesis, there are several genera of fungi like Aspergillus (27%), Fusarium (21%), Verticillium (9%), Trichoderma, Rhizopus and Penicillium about 7% and some other mushrooms like Pleurotus about 1% [3]. Several species of cultivated and wild mushrooms have been successfully used for the green- or bio- or myco-synthesis of many kinds of nanoparticles particularly gold (Au) [4][5][6], silver (Ag) [7][8][9][10], magnesium oxide (MgO) [11], titanium oxide (TiO2) [12], copper (Cu) [13], zinc (Zn) [14][15], and cadmium sulfide (CdS) [3]. The mechanism of nanoparticle myco-synthesis by mushrooms seems to be simple, but many factors control the stability, and biocompatibility of produced nanoparticles. These factors mainly include temperature (up to 40 ℃ for Trichoderma harzianum, or 90 ℃ for Aspergillus oryzae), pH of the reaction medium (a higher pH is preferable), the used amount of fungal biomass, and the medium composition [3]. The mechanism may return to various types of enzymes, mainly reductases, that can direct the intracellular or extracellular reduction and stabilization of NPs by the fungal exudates of biomolecules [16] and [17][18]. These biomolecules may contain amino acids, alkaloids, carboxylic acids, enzymes, flavonoids, peptides, phenols, polysaccharides, saponins, steroids, tannins, vitamins, and other secondary metabolites [3][9][19][20][21][22][23]. Biosynthesis of many metal or metal oxide-NPs using mushrooms like Pleurotus sp. and Pleurotus sajorcaju was reported (Table 1). However, the specific mode of action behind NP-myco-synthesis based on biological materials needs to be fully elucidated [17].
Table 1. Green synthesis of some nanoparticles by fundi or mushrooms and their bioactivity.
Mushroom Species Nanoparticle Kind and Its Size (nm) Bioactivity or the Reaction Reference
Agaricus bisporus Ag-NPs (80–100) Antibacterial activities [24]
Amanita muscaria Ag-NPs (5–25) Anticancer activity [24]
Pleurotus ostreatus Ag-NPs (35) Antioxidant properties [25]
Pleurotus giganteus Ag-NPs (5–25) Antimicrobial activity [26]
Ganoderma applanatum Ag-NPs (20–5) Antioxidant; Antibacterial [27]
Ganoderma lucidum Ag-NPs (15–22) Antimicrobial activity [19]
Pleurotus giganteus Ag-NPs (2–20) Antibacterial activity [26]
Lentinus tuber-regium Ag-NPs (5–35) Antimicrobial activity [28]
Pleurotus ostreatus Ag-NPs (15–45) Antimicrobial activity [29]
Pichia pastoris Ag-NPs (6.63) Antioxidant and antimicrobial [30]
Inonotus hispidus Ag-NPs (69.24) Antibacterial and antifungal [21]
Ramaria botrytis Ag@AuNPs (200) Antioxidant and antibacterial [20]
Flammulina velutipes Ag-NPs (22) Antibacterial activities [31]
Boletus edulis
Coriolus versicolor		 Ag-NPs (87.7)
Ag-NPs (86.0)		 Anticancer of breast, colon; liver, and antimicrobial [7]
Pleurotus ostreatus
Pleurotus djamor		 Ag-NPs (28.44)
Ag-NPs (55.76)		 Antioxidant activities and antimicrobial agent [23]
Agaricus arvensis Ag-NPs (20) Anticancer, Antimicrobial [8]
Ganoderma lucidum Ag-NPs (50) Antibacterial activities [10]
Agaricus bisporus Ag-NPs (50.44) Antibacterial activity [9]
Pleurotus sajor-caju Au-NPs (16–18) Cancer cell inhibition [5]
Ganoderma applanatum Au-NPs (18.7) Dye decolorization [32]
Lentinula edodes Au-NPs (5–15) Anticancer activity [33]
Ganoderma lucidium Au-NPs (5–15) Anticancer activity [33]
Agaricus bisporus Cu-NPs (10) Antibactericidal activity [13]
Pleurotus tuber-regium Se-NPs (50) Anticancer activity [34]
Pleurotus djamor TiO2-NPs (31) Antilarval properties [12]
Pleurotuss ostreatu ZnS-NPs (2–5) Biomedical; food packaging [35]
Agaricus bisporus Zn-NPs (12–17) Antirenal cancer [36]
Candida albicans ZnO-NPs (10.2) Antimicrobial activities [15]
Pleurotus floridanus ZnO-NPs (34.98) Biomedical applications [14]
Pleurotus djamor ZnO-NPs (38.73) Antibacterial and anticancer [37]
Agarius bisporus ZnO-NPs (20) Antibacterial activity [38]

2. Soil Nanomanagement and Mushrooms

The cultivation of mushrooms is known to have been performed since 600, 1100, and 1650 AD, for the species Auricularia auricula-judae, Lentinula edodes, and Agaricus bisporus, respectively [39]. Mushrooms as fungi can play different roles in soil, including promoting soil fertility, biodegrading agrowastes, or removing pollutants from soil, as mentioned in the previous section. According to their main source of carbon for nutrition, the most cultivated mushrooms in the soil are considered saprophyte and heterotrophic fungi. Mushrooms can biosynthesize their own foods from the agroresidues of different crops by converting these by-products and wastes and preventing the accumulation of them as health hazards. Mushrooms cannot synthesize their food through photosynthesis because they are devoid of chlorophylls [39]. The vascular xylem and phloem are also absent in mushrooms, but they can absorb O2 and release CO2 [39].
The quality of cultivated mushrooms may depend on the concertation of pollutants such as heavy metals and their accumulation in the fruit bodies of mushrooms, which may migrate from the growing substrates [40]. The selected proper substrate for mushroom cultivation is considered a limiting factor, which depends on the price and lignocellulosic compounds in used agrowastes [41]. Although the use of spent mushroom substrate as raw materials remains a formidable challenge, it could produce complexes of chitin-cellulose nanofiber, which promote plant growth through increasing plant disease resistance [42]. An increased concern on the manufacture of nanomaterials derived from mushrooms recently has been noticed (Table 2). These nanomaterials include chitin-cellulose nanofiber from Lentinula edodes substrate [42] and chitin nanopaper from Lentinula edodes, Flammulina velutipes, and Pleurotus ostreatus [43]. Mushrooms are useful for soil when their wastes from cultivation could be used as fodder for livestock, as a soil conditioner, as organic fertilizers, and/or for environmental bioremediation, as discussed in the next sections.
Table 2. List of some important materials-derived from mushrooms and their applications.
Mushroom Species Potential Materials The Main Application/Main Findings Refs.
Agaricus bisporus Nanoencapsulation of rutin in β-glucan matrix Encapsulation by green technology for nutraceutical activities [18]
Lentinula edodes Chitin/cellulose nanofiber Growth promotion and disease resistance [42]
Lentinula edodes, Pleurotus ostreatus Chitin nanopaper derived from mushroom Extraction of chitin from the mushrooms to produce nanopaper [43]
Pleurotus ostreatus Chitin–glucan complex Producing eco-friendly polymers [44]
Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus ostreatus Biocompatible fluorescent carbon-based nanomaterials Producing live cells by fluorescent carbon quantum dot derived from mushrooms [45]
Lentinus edodes Nanoemulsion Nanoemulsion derived from mushroom polysaccharide for the antitumor activity [46]
Agaricus bisporus Chitin nanopaper derived from mushroom Production of chitin nanopaper from an extract of mushrooms [47]
Agaricus bisporus Fraction of chitin/glucan Producing glycosidases (e.g., chitinases), which immobilize on nanoparticles and spray for biocontrol of insect pests [48]
Lactarius volemus Modified chitosan with nano-Fe3O4 nanoparticles Purification of phytase enzymes and their potential in cereal industries [49]
Lentinus edodes Cellulose nanofibers The highest yield of the film was produced using 0.18 g NaClO per 1.0 g of waste mushroom bed (71% cellulose) [50]

References

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