Consequences of COVID-19 for Pancreas

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1		Urszula Abramczyk	+ 2560 word(s)	2560	2022-01-17 04:43:58

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/ijms23020864

COVID-19 pancreas SARS-CoV-2 diabetes

1. Effects of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Related Coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome-Related Coronavirus (MERS-CoV) on the Pancreas

Coronaviruses are enveloped, single- and positive-stranded RNA viruses that infect birds and mammals. In humans, coronaviruses cause respiratory tract infection, usually the common cold, but they can also cause severe respiratory illness including severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV), respectively ^[1]. Coronaviruses tend to cause epidemics and even pandemics. The first coronavirus pandemic was the SARS outbreak in 2002–2003 ^[2]. With the experience gained during the SARS pandemic, it was possible to more quickly identify subsequent outbreaks of the MERS epidemic in 2012 ^[3]. The pathomechanism of both viruses is very similar—they even both use transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2), except SARS-CoV uses angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as its receptor, whereas MERS uses dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4) ^[4]^[5]. Moreover, there is a difference in terms of the severity and frequency of symptoms, which was observed in MERS patients as more frequent hospitalization in the intensive care unit (ICU) compared to SARS patients ^[2]. Diabetes was one of the significant and independent predictors for developing severe SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV ^[6]^[7]^[8]. In MERS, no viral antigen was detected in any tissue other than pneumocytes ^[7], despite multiple organ dysfunction syndrome in critically ill patients. In SARS-CoV, the presence of the virus was detected not only in respiratory epithelial cells, but also in small intestinal and colonic epithelial cells, in which it also revealed replication features ^[9]. It is known that the ACE2 receptor is also present in tissues such as the heart, kidney, and pancreas ^[8]^[9].

2. Pancreatic Damage during Diabetes Mellitus and COVID-19

Pancreas tissue damage may cause to the lack of control over normal blood glucose levels in the body. Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is caused by insulin deficiency due to βcell dysfunction of immunologic or idiopathic cause. In contrast, β pancreatic cells in type 2 diabetes (T2D) become depleted over time due to compensatory insulin secretion caused by insulin resistance. There is also type 3 diabetes (T3D), which is described as diabetes associated with the development of Alzheimer’s disease ^[10]. It should not be confused with type 3c (pancreatogenic) diabetes, which relates to the exocrine and digestive functions of the pancreas. The issue concerning the impairing effect of hyperglycemia (glucotoxicity) on the secretory function of the islets of Langerhans has also been increasingly raised. In addition to endocrine dysfunction, some diabetic patients may also develop moderate exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), in which pancreatic enzyme secretion is impaired. EPI can be observed in almost all patients with type 3c (pancreatogenic) diabetes (secondary to pancreatic pathology), whereas the prevalence of this dysfunction in patients with T1D or T2D is 40% and 27%, respectively ^[11].

With the ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, patients with reduced normal pancreatic function are at high risk for COVID-19 requiring hospitalization. In particular, elevated blood glucose levels in patient with and without diabetes makes them at high risk of mortality ^[12]. Hyperglycemia impairs the immune response (e.g., by reducing the activity of macrophages and polymorphonuclear leukocytes), which in addition influences the excessive cytokine response, and thus has a strong proinflammatory effect.

The receptors for ACE2, which are also present in the pancreas, are a target of SARS-CoV-2 in the body, which may result in acute failure of both the islets of Langerhans and exocrine cells ^[13]. Infection-induced, transient β cell dysfunction may cause an uncontrolled hyperglycemic state, especially in patients whose pancreas is already affected by diabetes mellitus. Persistent hyperglycemia usually predisposes to severe COVID-19 and to viral infection complicated by secondary infections.

3. Pancreatic Damage in Patients without Pre-Existing Diabetes Infected with SARS-CoV-2

It has been postulated that, either by direct invasion of pancreatic cells by the virus or by indirect mechanisms described below, SARS-CoV-2 has a destructive effect on the pancreas and can lead to insulin deficiency and development of T1D ^[14].

If the hypothesis that SARS-CoV-2 infection causes hyperglycemia is true, increased statistics of new T1D cases should be observed. Indeed, there are publications that describe such a phenomenon. For instance, Unsworth et al. and Kamrath et al. describe an increase in new-onset T1D in children during the COVID-19 pandemic ^[15]^[16]. Although pancreatic β cell damage induced transient hyperglycemia in SARS-CoV, it is still unclear whether β cell damage is transient or permanent in SARS-CoV-2 ^[17]. This information appears to be of great importance because COVID-19 in children is frequently considered “harmless”. Therefore, it is reasonable to sensitize parents to the fact that the consequences of COVID-19 may be potentially dangerous for their children.

4. Etiology Associated with ACE2, TMPRSS2, and Na+/H+ Exchanger

As previously mentioned, SARS-CoV infection of host cells is facilitated by ACE2, but also by the transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) and other host cell proteases such as cathepsin L (CTSL) ^[18].

ACE2 is an enzyme that is expressed to varying degrees in most cells of the human body ^[19]^[20]^[21]. This enzyme catalyzes the conversion of angiotensin II to angiotensin 1–7, taking part in the maintenance of body homeostasis by influencing the regulation of blood pressure and water–electrolyte balance through the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone (RAA) system ^[22]. Moreover, ACE2/angiotensin (1–7) stimulates insulin secretion, reduces insulin resistance, and increases pancreatic βcell survival ^[21]^[22].

In addition to the key role it plays in maintaining body homeostasis, ACE2 is now also the best-studied target for SARS-CoV-2 S glycoprotein, enabling infection of host cells ^[21]^[23]. ACE2 in the pancreas is expressed mainly within the pericytes of pancreatic microvessels and to a lesser extent on the surface of the islets of Langerhans, including pancreatic β cells ^[24]. SARS-CoV-2 shows 10–20 times more activity against ACE2 than SARS-CoV, which significantly increases the infectivity of SARS-CoV-2 ^[25]^[26]. Furthermore, studies indicate that SARS-CoV may also downregulate ACE2 expression in cells. This causes an imbalance between ACE and ACE2, consequently leading to blood pressure disorders and systemic inflammation ^[21]^[27]^[28]. Due to the 79% genetic similarity between SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 ^[29], it is speculated that ACE2 expression may also be downregulated during SARS-CoV-2 infection, causing i.a. MODS observed in COVID-19 ^[21].

During cell infection by SARS-CoV-2, in addition to the role played by ACE2, it is also appropriate to consider the significant pathogenic role of TMPRSS2 that is necessary for the preparation of S glycoprotein by its cleavage, thereby enabling fusion of the virus with the host cell ^[30]^[31]. The S1 and S2 domains can be distinguished in the SARS-CoV-2 S glycoprotein. The S1 domain is involved in binding to the ACE2 receptor and then TMPRSS2 intersects with the S protein, including at the boundary of the S1 and S2 domains and within the S2 domain, which enables the virus–cell fusion ^[32]^[33]. According to studies, TMPRSS2 expression is significantly increased in obese patients, which may contribute to the poorer prognosis that is observed during COVID-19 in this patient group ^[34]. Moreover, obese patients are frequently already burdened with problems such as insulin resistance at baseline, while the presence of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 within the pancreas as a binding site for SARS-CoV-2 may exacerbate insulin resistance causing problems in terms of diabetes management in COVID-19 patients.

There are also other mechanisms by which COVID-19 may affect the development of hyperglycemia. It is reported that the virus may also affect the glucose regulation through the Na+/H+ exchanger and lactate pathways. The mechanism is that angiotensin II, which accumulates during infection, contributes to insulin resistance and—by activating the Na+/H+ exchanger in the pancreas—it leads to hypoxia and extracellular acidification, which, through the accumulation of calcium and sodium ions in the cells and the production of reactive oxygen species, damages pancreatic tissue ^[35]. Simultaneously, the concentration of lactate increases, which in COVID-19 infection is intensively released, among other things, from adipose tissue, and then monocarboxylate transporters transport lactate and H+ ion inward in the cell, which increases Na+/H+ exchanger activation, further disrupting pancreatic homeostasis ^[35].

5. The Etiology Associated with a Systemic Proinflammatory Environment, Immune System Aggression, and Production of Novel Autoantigens

A broad spectrum of proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-2, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, interferon-γ, and Tumor Necrosis Factor α (TNF-α), is released during, in particular severe, COVID-19 infection ^[36]^[37]^[38]. Based on current studies, it is reasonable to suspect that these cytokines are released in response to the binding of the virus to ACE2 receptors that are also located in the pancreas ^[9]^[36]. The cause of pancreatic damage during COVID-19 is the cytokine storm that plays a key role in this case, because in both acute pancreatitis (AP) and severe COVID-19, elevated levels of the aforementioned interleukins are associated with the severity of these both disease entities. Particular attention should be paid to IL-6, because it is suspected to play a key role in the pathogenesis of AP as well as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) that is the most common and most severe clinical manifestation of COVID-19. In COVID-19-induced ARDS, IL-6 levels are correlated with disease-related mortality ^[39]^[40]^[41]. At the same time, high IL-6 levels correlate with an increased risk of developing severe pancreatitis ^[42]^[43].

The production of neutralizing antibodies is also an important response of the body in the course of COVID-19 ^[44]^[45]^[46]. It has been observed that early seroconversion and very high antibody titers occur in patients with severe SARS-CoV-2 infection ^[47]^[48]. The available literature details a mechanism called antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE), which is associated with a pathological response of the immune system ^[47]. ADE exploits the existence of FcRS receptors located on various cells of the immune system, for example, macrophages and B lymphocytes ^[47]. This relationship may lead to a likely bypass of the classical viral infection pathway by ACE2, and virus–antibody complexes may stimulate macrophages to overproduce cytokines including significant IL-6 ^[47]^[49].

Molecular mimicry may be also one of potential causes of pancreatic cell damage ^[50]. There are similarities in the protein structure of the virus and β-pancreatic cells, which may induce cross-reactivity and lead to autoimmunity ^[50]. Furthermore, viral infection may also lead to increased cytokine secretion by surrounding dendritic cells and activation of naive T cells in genetically predisposed individuals ^[50].

6. Pancreatitis in COVID-19

Although the impact of the discussed coronavirus-induced disease on exocrine function is not fully understood, available literature is not able to unambiguously determine whether the tissue damage leading to AP occurs as a result of direct SARS-CoV-2 infection ^[51] or as a result of systemic MODS with increased levels of amylase and lipase ^[36]. Liu et al.’s study involving 121 COVID-19 patients with a mean age of 57 years and a variable course of infection proved above-normal levels of amylase and lipase in 1–2% of patients with moderate COVID-19 infection and in 17% of patients with severe COVID-19 infection. This may support the hypothesis that SARS-CoV-2-induced disease has a destructive effect not only on the endocrine portion of this gland, but also on the exocrine one ^[13].

However, elevated levels of pancreatic enzymes in question do not have to mean the destruction of pancreatic cells—after all, such a situation may occur during kidney failure or diarrhea in the course of COVID-19. Furthermore, there remains the question of the effect of drugs administered during SARS-CoV-2 infection on changes in pancreatic function ^[36], discussed further in this article.

According to the International Association of Pancreatology (IAP) and the American Pancreatic Association (APA), the diagnosis of AP is based on meeting two out of three of the following criteria: clinical (epigastric pain), laboratory (serum amylase or lipase > 3 × upper limit of normal), and/or imaging criteria (computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, ultrasound) ^[52]. Pancreatic lipase is considered as a potential marker of SARS-CoV-2 severity with concomitant AP. In Hemant Goyal et al.’s study, as many as 11.7% out of 756 COVID-19 patients had hyperlipidemia and they were three times more likely to have severe COVID-19 ^[53]. Those with higher lipase levels—17% out of 83 patients—required hospitalization ^[54]. However, it is difficult to distinguish whether these patients required hospitalization for severe systemic COVID-19 infection or for pancreatitis in the course of COVID-19 infection.

AP in the course of COVID-19 was analyzed in different age groups; however, some studies only involve children ^[55]. Compared to pancreatic islet cells, cells of the exocrine pancreatic ducts are more abundant in ACE2 and TMPRSS2 that are necessary for the virus to penetrate the cell ^[56]. Infection of these cells may be one of the causes of AP ^[57]. Infections, both bacterial and viral, are one of the causes of AP. The definitive mechanism of how viral infections affect pancreatic cells is not known; however, a study by Maria K Smatti et al. found that there is infection of pancreatic islet cells and replication of the virus within them, ultimately resulting in autoimmune reactions that eventually affect both diabetes and AP in a negative way ^[58]. For non-SARS-CoV-2 patients, the etiology of AP is known and confirmed in most cases, although 69% of those undergoing infection do not have definite etiology of AP while meeting the AP-Atlanta criteria for diagnosis ^[59].

Hegyi et al. show the mechanism of MODS formation during COVID-19 infection and AP ^[60]. This is lipotoxicity, involving an interstitial increase in pancreatic lipase levels, which leads to the breakdown of triacylglycerols contained in adipose tissue cells and the release of unsaturated fatty acids. These in turn exert a toxic effect on mitochondria causing the release of cytokines, which results in a cytokine storm.

There is also a hypothesis, which claims that AP can develop because of blood circulatory centralization resulting from uncontrolled cytokine storm created by SARS-CoV-2 infection ^[61]. There exist reports that say that pancreatic ischemia may be the cause of different degrees of acute pancreatitis ^[62]^[63]. This statement can be supported by the reports that state that pancreatic blood reperfusion inhibits the development of AP and accelerate pancreas recovery ^[64].

Another mechanism of developing AP during COVID-19 may be a coagulation cascade activation caused by active inflammatory process due to SARS-CoV-2 infection ^[65]. The ongoing inflammatory process causes not only hemostasis imbalance for blood clotting, but it also leads to intensification of coagulation by removing epithelial cell protein C receptor (EPCR) from epithelial by the means of inflammatory mediators and thrombin ^[65]. This means that both processes intensify each other. Simultaneously, it was proved that COVID-19 predisposes patients to venous thromboembolism resulting from excessive inflammation, platelet activation, and endothelial dysfunction ^[66]. It is also important to notice that AP is inherently connected with a coagulation cascade activation, increased fibrinolysis and, hence, higher level of D-dimers ^[67]. Acute pancreatitis severity may depend on hemostasis imbalance; local coagulation results in mild AP whereas, in more severe AP cases, the imbalance may lead to development of disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) ^[68]. These observations have been supported by the results of experimental studies showing that the inhibition of coagulation reduces the development of AP ^[69]^[70]^[71] and exhibits therapeutic effect in this disease ^[72]^[73]. Additionally it is worth noticing that infection-related hyperglycemia has powerful inflammation-promoting effects on the organism (especially when organism is under stress), thus increasing the number of inflammatory mediators ^[68]. Unfortunately, it is impossible to decide which process is dominant in causing AP in COVID-19 patients: local inflammation caused by SARS-CoV-2 or systemic hemostasis imbalance.

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Urszula Abramczyk

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