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Yeshi, K. Plant Secondary Metabolites in Pharmaceutical Product Development. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/18588 (accessed on 20 May 2024).
Yeshi K. Plant Secondary Metabolites in Pharmaceutical Product Development. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/18588. Accessed May 20, 2024.
Yeshi, Karma. "Plant Secondary Metabolites in Pharmaceutical Product Development" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/18588 (accessed May 20, 2024).
Yeshi, K. (2022, January 21). Plant Secondary Metabolites in Pharmaceutical Product Development. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/18588
Yeshi, Karma. "Plant Secondary Metabolites in Pharmaceutical Product Development." Encyclopedia. Web. 21 January, 2022.
Plant Secondary Metabolites in Pharmaceutical Product Development
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/molecules27010313

Plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) are vital for human health and constitute the skeletal framework of many pharmaceutical drugs. Indeed, more than 25% of the existing drugs belong to PSMs. One of the continuing challenges for drug discovery and pharmaceutical industries is gaining access to natural products, including medicinal plants. This bottleneck is heightened for endangered species prohibited for large sample collection, even if they show biological hits. While cultivating the pharmaceutically interesting plant species may be a solution, it is not always possible to grow the organism outside its natural habitat. Plants affected by abiotic stress present a potential alternative source for drug discovery. In order to overcome abiotic environmental stressors, plants may mount a defense response by producing a diversity of PSMs to avoid cells and tissue damage. Plants either synthesize new chemicals or increase the concentration (in most instances) of existing chemicals, including the prominent bioactive lead compounds morphine, camptothecin, catharanthine, epicatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), quercetin, resveratrol, and kaempferol. Most PSMs produced under various abiotic stress conditions are plant defense chemicals and are functionally anti-inflammatory and antioxidative. The major PSM groups are terpenoids, followed by alkaloids and phenolic compounds.

secondary metabolites climate change drug discovery abiotic stress

1. Introduction

Plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) are small molecules with diverse chemical structures and biological activities. Unlike primary metabolites, which are the main drivers of essential life functions, including cell formation, PSMs are neither necessary for primary life functions nor possess high-energy bonds [1]. However, PSMs play essential secondary physiological and biochemical functions that ensure plant fitness and survival, particularly concerning their interactions with the environment and coping with biotic and abiotic stress [1]. These factors, especially abiotic stressors (nutrient deficiencies, seasons, salinity, wounding, drought, light, UV radiation, temperature, greenhouse gases, and climate changes), cause significant perturbations in chemotypes and levels of PSMs production. For example, plants produce more terpenoids when exposed to high temperatures [2], and UV-B (280–315 nm) radiation induces tree foliage to produce more phenolic acids and flavonoids as protective pigments [3][4]. Phenolics and flavonoids are well-known for their antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties [5][6][7]. Similarly, the production of antioxidative compounds such as glutathione, g-aminobutyric acid (GABA), terpenoids, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) increases under elevated O3 [8].
PSMs are vital for human health and form many pharmaceutical drugs’ backbone. Indeed, more than 25% of the existing drugs belong to PSMs [9]. The most popular PSMs-derived drugs are morphine (isolated from Papaver somniferum), digitoxin (isolated from Digitalis purpurea), taxol (isolated from Taxus baccata), artemisinin (isolated from Artemisia annua) and quinine (isolated from Cinchona officinalis), vinblastine and vincristine (isolated from Catharanthus roseus); and aspirin (first isolated as salicylic acid from Filipendula ulmaria). Since plants exposed to various abiotic stress conditions produce many PSMs in higher concentrations as their coping mechanism [10][11][12], it presents opportunities for natural product researchers and pharmaceutical companies to explore the biochemical responses of plants to climatic stress for developing many novel therapeutics. However, there is no comprehensive literature review examining the scope of plants affected by abiotic stresses for drug discovery.

2. Reported Pharmacological Properties of PSMs Present in Plants Affected by Ex Situ Abiotic Stresses

Plant protective secondary metabolites are diverse in structure and biological properties, and they have been continuously exploited for pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and cosmetic uses [13] (Figure 1). Flavonoids and other phenolic compounds are predominant among secondary metabolites produced in response to climatic/or abiotic stress (Table 1). Flavonoids confer protection against inflammation, allergy, and bacterial infections [14]. Flavonols (or 3-hydroxy flavones), one of the main subclass of flavonoids, are apparent antioxidants in stressed plants, and they are known to prevent nuclear DNA damage by free radicals like H2O2 [15]. Flavonols are polyaromatic secondary metabolites with three rings, and many of them are bioactive. Many flavonoids possess antiviral properties. For instance, the hydroxy (OH) group in the ring-C of flavonols makes them more effective against herpes simplex virus type I than flavones [16]. Fisetin is another example of an active flavonoid produced by plants under oxidative stress, preventing membrane lipid peroxidation, DNA damage, and protein carbonylation [17]. Fisetin showed numerous biological activities such as protection against cell death from oxidative stress, growth, and maintenance of nerve cells (primary cortical neurons from a rat) [18][19]. Fisetin suppresses many inflammatory pathways, including Nuclear Factor-kappa B (NF-kB) pathway, helping prevent cancerous growth [20][21]. Similarly, Hussain et al. [22] also observed the protective effect of fisetin against smoke-induced oxidative stress and inflammation in rat lungs. Plant UV filters, kaempferol, and quercetin are a few other examples of bioactive flavonoids. Kaempferol is an anti-inflammatory [23], chemo-protective [24], and cardio-protective [25]. Polyphenolic resveratrol is one of the essential stilbene phytoalexin produced by a plant’s defense mechanism, and it possesses antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-estrogenic properties [26]. The immunoinhibitory compound, calycopterin isolated from the medicinal plant Dracocephalum kotschyi [27], was elevated upon UV irradiation in Gnaphalium luteo-album [28]. Tanshinones are other examples of bioactive phenols. In response to severe drought stress, their concentration in the Salvia miltiorrhiza increases, including tanshinone I and tanshinone IIA by 182% and 322%, respectively, compared to 148% under the moderate drought stress [29]. Tanshinones are known for their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer properties [30].
Molecules 27 00313 g007a
Molecules 27 00313 g007a
Figure 1. Chemical structure of compounds known to accumulate in plants under various abiotic stress conditions.
Nitrogen-containing compounds, alkaloids, are another group of secondary metabolites widely produced in plants for defense, and they are known to exhibit diverse biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, anti-malarial, and anticancer activities [31]. The fungistatic activity of α-tomatine (Solanum and Lycopersicon species) in Fusarium oxysporum f. lycopersici (tomato wilt) was the first bioactive alkaloid reported in 1945 by Irving et al. [32]. Alkaloids and their precursors accumulate more in plants when exposed to various stress factors. For example, Catharanthus roseus, when exposed to UV-B radiation, synthesizes more indole alkaloids and precursors of vinblastine and vincristine increase in hairy roots [33]. These alkaloids inhibit cell mitosis by destroying microtubules of the mitotic apparatus, blocking cancer cell division [34]. Bioactive alkaloids accumulate in response to high temperature, drought, and UV-B stresses (Table 1). Indole alkaloid vindoline from Catharanthus roseus (which increases in response to UV-B) showed anti-diabetic (reduces fasting blood glucose level) and anti-inflammatory (reduces pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF- α and IL-6) properties [35].
The number of structurally determined specialized plant terpenes exceeds 105, including >12,000 diterpenoids [36]. Plant terpenoids are diverse and have been a valuable source of medicinal discoveries because terpenoids are natural NF-kB signaling inhibitors with anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties [37]. Examples include monoterpenes (e.g., (−)-menthol and cannabinoids); sesquiterpenes (e.g., artemisinin and thapsigargin); diterpenes (e.g., paclitaxel and ingenol mebutate) and triterpenes found in floral and vegetative parts; triterpenoids; and carotenoids (e.g., steroidal alkaloids, cardenolides, and bixin) (Figure 1). Other compounds are partially derived from a terpene precursor, such as monoterpenoid alkaloids (e.g., strychnine), which are synthesized in part from secologanin (Figure 1), a member of the widespread class of iridoid monoterpenes [38].
Table 1. Plant secondary metabolites produced in response to abiotic stresses and their reported pharmacological properties.
Stress Condition(s) Plant Species (Family) PSMs Produced Effects on PSMs Concentration Compound Class Bioactive Compounds Reported Pharmacological Properties
Cold stress Catharanthus roseus (Apocynaceae) [39] vindoline Decrease Alkaloids vindoline Antidiabetic [35]
Cold stress Glycine max (Fabaceae) [40] genistein, daidzein Increase Phenolics genistein, daidzein Antiproliferative [41][42]
Cold stress Solanum lycopersicon (Solanaceae) [43][44] (Z)-3-hexenol and (E)-2-hexenal (dominant); 1-hexanol and 1,4-hexadienal (smaller quantities) Increase Fatty Acyls (E)-2-hexenal Antibacterial [45]
Cold stress β-phellandrene, (E)-β-ocimene Increase Terpenoids NA NA
Cold stress δ-elemene, α-humulene and β-caryophyllene (dominant); in severe cold: β-elemene is produced. Increase Terpenoids δ-elemene, α-humulene and β-caryophyllene Antiproliferative [46]; anticancer [47]; anti-inflammatory [48]
Cold stress Zea mays (Poaceae) [49] pelargonidin Increase Phenolics pelargonidin Antithrombotic [50]
Cold stress Fagopyrum tartaricum (Polygonaceae) [51] anthocyanins (e.g.,3-O-galactosides) and anthocyanidins (e.g., malvidin) Increase Phenolics anthocyanins Antioxidant [52]
Cold stress Withania somnifera (Solanaceae) [53] withanolide A, withaferin A Increase Terpenoids withanolide A; withferin A Neuroprotective [54]; anticancer [55]
Cold stress Camellia sinensis (Theaceae) [56] nerolidol glucoside Increase Terpenoids NA NA
Drought Amaranthus tricolor (Amaranthaceae) [57] hydroxybenzoic acids (gallic acid, vanillic acid, syringic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, salicylic acid, ellagic acid), hydroxycinnamic acids (caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, m-coumaric acid, sinapic acid, trans-cinnamic acid), flavonoids (iso-quercetin, hyperoside, rutin). Increase Phenolics (Flavonoids) p-hydroxybenzoic acid Antisickling activity [58]
Drought Camellia sinensis (Theaceae) [59] Epicatechins Increase Phenolics (Flavonoids) epicatechins Antioxidant [60]
Drought Camptotheca acuminata (Nyssaceae) [61] camptothecin Increase Alkaloids camptothecin Antitumour [62]
Drought (PEG-induced) Catharanthus roseus (Apocyanaceae) [63] vinblastine Increase Alkaloids vinblastine Anticancer [64]
Drought Cistus clusii (Cistaceae) [65] epigallocatechin gallate, epicatechin, epicatechin gallate, and ascorbic acid. Increase Phenolics (Flavonols) epigallocatechin gallate Anticancer [66]; antibacterial [67]
Drought Crataegus laevigata, C. monogyna (Rosaceae) [68] chlorogenic acid, catechin, (−)-epicatechin Increase Phenolics chlorogenic acid, (−)-epicatechin Antioxidant [69][70]
Drought Glycine max (Fabaceae) [71] trigonelline Increase Alkaloids trigonelline Antidiabetic [72]
Drought Hypericum brasiliense (Hypericaceae) [73] isouliginosin B, rutin, 1,5-dihydroxyxanthone Increase Phenolics isouliginosin B, rutin, Antinociceptive [74]; Anticancer [75]
betulinic acid Terpenoids betulinic acid Anticancer [76]
Drought Lupinus angustifolius (Fabaceae) [77] chinolizidin Increase Alkaloids NA NA
Drought Papaver somniferum (Papaveraceae) [78] morphine, codeine Increase Alkaloids morphine, codeine Analgesic [79][80]
Drought Pinus sylvestris (Pinaceae) [81] abietic acid Increase Terpenoids abietic acid Antiallergic [82]; anti-inflammatory [83]
Drought Salvia miltiorrhiza (Lamiaceae) [29] tanshinones, cryptotanshinone Increase Terpenoids cryptotanshinone Anticancer [84].
Drought S. miltiorrhiza [29] rosmarinic acid Decrease Phenolics rosmarinic acid Antioxidant [85]
salvianolic acid Increase salvianolic acids Antioxidant [86]
Drought Scrophularia ningpoensis (Scrophulariaceae) [87] catalpol, harpagide, aucubin, harpagoside Increase Glycosides catalpol, aucubin Hepatoprotective [88]; neuroprotective [89]
Ozone (O3) stress S. lycopersicon [43][44] α-carotene, β-carotene, violoxanthin Increase Terpenoids β-carotene Antioxidants [90]; anti-inflammatory [91]
isoprene, α-pinene, β-pinene, myrcene, limonene, sabinene, (E)-β-ocimene, (Z)-β-ocimene, α-humulene, (E)-β-farnesene, (E,E)-α-farnesene, (E)-β-caryophyllene, δ-cadinene Increase Terpenoids α-pinene; myrcene; limonene; α-humulene. Anti-inflammatory [92]; anti-asthmatic [93]; antioxidant [94]; anti-inflammatory [95]
O3 Gingko biloba (Ginkgoaceae) [96] ginkgolide A Increase Terpenoids ginkgolide A Neuroprotective [97]
Ultraviolet radiation-B (UV-B) Arabidopsis thaliana (Brassicaceae) [98] kaempferol 3-gentiobioside-7-rhamnoside; kaempferol 3,7-dirhamnoside. Increase Phenolics (Flavonoids) NA NA
UV-B Brassica napus (Brassicaceae) [99] quercetin 3-sophoroide-7-glucoside; quercetin 3-sinapyl sophoroside-7-glucoside Increase Phenolics (Flavonoids) NA NA
UV-B Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae) [100] cyanidine glycosides; sinapyl alcohol Increase Phenolics (Flavoboids) NA NA
UV-B C. roseus (Apocynaceae) [101][102] catharanthine, vindoline Increase Alkaloids catharanthine Anticancer [103]
  Clarkia breweri (Onagraceae) [104] eugenol, isoeugenol, methyleugenol, and isomethyleugenol Increase Phenolics eugenol Antifungal [105]; anti-inflammatory [106]
UV-B Fagopyrum esculentum (Polygonaceae) [107] rutin, quercetin, catechin Increase Phenolics quercetin; catechin Antioxidant [108]; anticancer and antioxidant [109][110]
UV-B Gnaphalium luteoalbum (Asteraceae) [28] calycopterin; 3’-methoxycalycopterin Increase Phenolics (Flavonoids) calycopterin Anticancer [27]
UV-B G. viravira [111] 7-O-methyl araneol Increase Phenolics (Flavonoids) NA NA
UV-B Hordeum vulgare (Poaceae) [112] saponarin; luteolin Increase Phenolics (Flavonoids) saponarin; luteolin Antihypertensive [113]; antibacterial [114]
UV-B Marchantia polymorpha (Marchantiaceae) [115] luteolin 7-glucuronide; luteolin 3,4’-di-p-coumaryl-quercetin 3-glucoside. Increase Phenolics (Flavonoids) NA NA
UV-B Quercus ilex (Fagaceae) [116] acylated kaempferol glycosides Increase Phenolics (Flavonoids) kaempferol Anticancer [117]; anti-inflammatory [118]
Heat stress C. acuminata [119] 10-hydroxycamptothecin Increase Alkaloids 10-hydroxycamptothecin Anticancer [120]
Heat stress Daucus carota (Apiaceae) [121][122][123] α-terpinolene Decrease Terpenoids α-terpinolene Antioxidant and anticancer [124]
α-caryophyllene, β-farnesene Increase NA NA
anthocyanins, coumaric and caffeic acid; Increase Phenolics p-coumaric acid and caffeic acid Antioxidant [125][126]
Heat stress Q. rubra (Fagaceae) [127] isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene) Increase Terpenoids NA NA
Heat stress S. lycopersicon [43][44] β-phellandrene (dominant), 2-carene, α-phellandrene, limonene; increased emission of (E)-β-ocimene after treatment above 46 °C; β-caryophyllene. Increase Terpenoids α-phellandrene; β-caryophyllene Antifungal [128]; anticancer and anti-inflammatory [47][48]
α-humulene Decrease α-humulene Anticancer [129]
Heat stress (increased humidity) Centella asiatica (Apiaceae) [130] asiaticoside Increase Phenolics asiaticoside Anti-cellulite agent [131]
Abbreviations: NA: not available; LOX: lipoxygenase; UV: ultraviolet; ROS: reactive oxygen species.

3. Conclusions

Plants constantly interact with the environment, and climate change has already impacted their diversity, growth, and survival. In order to minimize the impact of various climate change-related stresses (such as warming due to increased greenhouse gas emission, drought, cold, ozone-layer depletion, and harmful UV-radiation), plants produce diverse defense secondary metabolites, mainly phenolic and nitrogen-containing compounds. The biosynthesis of defense compounds in plants (including medicinal plants) is often upregulated, and these compounds are associated with various pharmacological properties, suggesting that plants affected by climate change may be a rich resource for drug discovery. However, most of these studies were conducted in simulated/or artificial environments. Thus, it would be interesting if more such studies (defense compounds produced by plants in response to climatic stress and their bioactivity) could be conducted by using plant samples from their natural habitats that are already challenged by the various climatic stresses.
It is difficult to access various natural products bound by legislation and societal restrictions, including plants, for drug discovery research, particularly plants associated with indigenous knowledge. This limitation remains a considerable challenge for those working with medicinal plants. Other wild plants exposed to various climatic/or abiotic stresses would be an alternative option for drug discovery researchers. Another obstacle in the drug discovery process is obtaining adequate compounds for further biological tests (both in vitro and in vivo). Bioactive compounds increase their concentration in plants exposed to stress, for example, withanolides in Indian ginseng (Withania somnifera) increases in response to cold stress. Culturing plant tissues of interest at a large scale under a conditioned environment using various abiotic stresses can potentially improve the yield of bioactive compounds from plants. Thus, plant tissue culture would be another platform for researchers and pharmaceutical industries to upscale the production of valuable phytochemicals under duress of climate change factors.

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