Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Adeleye Ayoade Adeniran
 + 2079 word(s) 2079 2022-01-18 09:04:56 |
2 Format correct
Vicky Zhou
 + 2079 word(s) 2079 2022-01-18 09:13:52 | |
3 Format correct
Vicky Zhou
 Meta information modification 2079 2022-01-30 08:34:46 |

Video Upload Options

We provide professional Video Production Services to translate complex research into visually appealing presentations. Would you like to try it?
No, upload directly Yes

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Adeniran, A. Plastic Waste Disposal in South African Townships. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/18390 (accessed on 03 January 2025).
Adeniran A. Plastic Waste Disposal in South African Townships. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/18390. Accessed January 03, 2025.
Adeniran, Adeleye. "Plastic Waste Disposal in South African Townships" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/18390 (accessed January 03, 2025).
Adeniran, A. (2022, January 18). Plastic Waste Disposal in South African Townships. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/18390
Adeniran, Adeleye. "Plastic Waste Disposal in South African Townships." Encyclopedia. Web. 18 January, 2022.
Plastic Waste Disposal in South African Townships
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/ijerph19020779

Twenty-first century human behaviour continues to escalate activities that result in environmental damage. This calls for environmentally friendly solutions, such as waste recycling and handling, to deal with the increased amount of waste, especially plastics. The plastic materials manufacturing sector is booming, particularly packaging; while only a fraction of its waste is recycled, another fraction is destroyed, and the larger part continues to pollute the environment. In addition to other waste disposal activities, destroying plastic or incineration (which could be for energy recovery) is usually subjected to strict legal requirements because of its effect on the environment. However plastic is destroyed or disposed of, it poses a serious challenge in both the short term and the long term to humans and their natural environment if the process is not efficiently managed.

environmental impact waste plastic recycling dumping incineration

1. Introduction

Plastics are categorised in line with their composition, and the materials used in their production are presented in Table 1 according to types and their properties, health effects and applications [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8].
Table 1. Types of plastics, their properties and common uses.
Symbols Types of Plastics Common Uses Properties Negative Health Effect Recycled Into
Ijerph 19 00779 i001 Polyethylene terephthalates Water bottles, soft drinks, salad dressing and domes, containers and biscuit trays Tough, clear, solvent resistant, a barrier to moisture and gas softens at 80 °C Causes carcinogens, vomiting, diarrhoea [2] Sleeping bag and pillow filling, carpeting, clothing, soft drink bottles, building insulation
Ijerph 19 00779 i002 High-density polyethylene (HDPE) Freezer and shopping bags, buckets, shampoo, ice cream and milk containers, juice bottles, chemical and detergent bottles, rigid agricultural pipe, crates Hard to semi-flexible, resistant to chemicals and moisture, waxy surface, opaque, softens at 75 °C, easily coloured, processed and formed Stomach ulcers [3] Recycling bins, compost bins,
Ijerph 19 00779 i003 i. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
ii. Plasticized polyvinyl chloride PVC-P		 Cosmetic containers, plumbing pipes and fittings, electrical conduct, blister packs, wall cladding, roof sheeting, bottles, garden hose, shoe soles, cable sheathing, blood bags and tubing i. Strong, tough, softens at 80 °C, can be solvent welded and clear.
ii. Flexible, clear, elastic, can be solvent welded		 Interferes with hormonal development [4] Compost bins
Ijerph 19 00779 i004 Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) Refuse bags, irrigation tubings, mulch film, cling wrap, garbage bags, squeeze bottles Soft flexible, waxy surface, translucent, softens at 70 °C, scratches easily Not recyclable [5] Bin liners, pallet sheets
Ijerph 19 00779 i005 Polypropylene (PP) Lunch boxes, microwave dishes, garden furniture, kettles, bottles and ice cream tubs, potato chip bags, straws and packaging tape Hard and translucent, softens at 140 °C, withstands solvents, versatile No known effects [6] Pegs, bins, pipes, pallet sheets
Ijerph 19 00779 i006 i. Polysterene (PS)
ii. Expanded polysterene (PS)		 CD cases, plastic cutlery, imitation glassware, low-cost brittle toys, video cases/foamed polystyrene cups, protective packaging, building and food insulation i. Semi-tough glassy rigid clear or opaque, material, it softens at 95 °C, affected by fat, acids and solvents, but resistant to salt solutions and alkalis, low water absorption, when not pigmented it is clear, odour- and taste-free.
ii. Special types PS are available for special applications		 Takes a thousand years to degrade [7] Recycle bins
Ijerph 19 00779 i007 Polycarbonate and others Automotive and appliance components, computers,
electronics, cooler bottles,
packaging		 Includes all resins and multi-materials (e.g., laminates) properties dependent on plastic or combination of plastics Obesity, cancer, endocrine problems in foetuses and children [8] Recycle bins
Approximately 2% of general waste in South Africa is plastic (Figure 1) [9] and mostly ends up in landfills as it is the widespread waste management conventional approach globally; however, the dearth of landfill spaces is becoming a major problem [10][11]. As a result of the types and quantities of harmful compounds present in landfills, as well as their potential for leaching, there is growing public health and environmental concern about landfill effects [12]. Government and other stakeholders worldwide aim to minimise the quantity of waste that is landfilled, but this has been difficult to achieve because approximately 90% of South Africa’s municipal waste is still landfilled [10], compared to 20%, 37% and 60% in Germany, France and England, respectively [13]. Although there is a risk of groundwater and soil contamination from disintegrating plastic additives and leftovers that can linger in the environment for a long time [14], public health and environmental pollution hazards can be mitigated if landfills are effectively managed.
Ijerph 19 00779 g001
Figure 1. Breakdown of general waste generated in South Africa in 2017.
Incineration is a practical alternative to landfilling plastic waste. However, there are increasing concerns about the possibility of hazardous chemicals, such as halogenated additives and polyvinyl chloridebecause the combustion of plastics releases dioxins, furans and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) into the atmosphere during the process [15]. Gilpin et al. [16] highlighted some compounds released during PVC incineration, including acetaldehyde, benzaldehyde, formaldehyde, phosgene, polychlorinated dibenzo-dioxin, hydrochloric acid, propylene and vinyl chloride, among others. Some of the health effects of these compounds include damaging the nervous system, causing lesions, eye and respiratory tract irritation and carcinogenic effects adversely affecting the bone marrow, the liver and the immune system [16]. In addition, the released substances settle on the soil and plants as black carbon, ashes, and many powders, with the potency to drift to the marine environment and when rain falls, some of these toxic composites permeate the soil, pollute the aquifers, or plants cultivated around this soil absorb them and further integrate them into the food chain [17].
Contrary to recycling and landfilling, incineration of plastic is less commonly used for waste management due to its higher immediate possibility for pollution. The only benefit from plastic incineration is the recovery of energy [18] but plastics can be recycled by converting recovered scraps into usable materials. However, since most plastics are non-biodegradable, the best effort will be to reduce waste productions, effectively reuse waste and then recycle [19].
Plastic recycling is an essential part of the global effort toward the reduction of the 8 million tons of plastic debris that empties into the ocean yearly [20], although the plastic recycling terminology is complicated due to its recycling and recovery systems [21]. There are four types of recycling techniques, and the primary technique is one which mechanically reprocesses plastics into an equally strong new product. The next one is called the secondary technique, and it is the mechanical reprocessing of plastics into a product with lesser qualities. The third, which is called the tertiary technique, revolves around the recovery of the chemical elements of the plastics, and the last recovers the chemical constituents of the plastics. Whatever method is used to recycle plastic, the smelting of various sorts of materials often results in phase separation like that of oil and water, and the result is the reason for the structural weakness in the finished product(s), which is accountable for the limited use of these polymer sequences [22]. This is the situation with polypropylene and polyethylene, the two most regularly produced plastics, which has reduced their recycling potential [23]. Despite this, the volume of post-consumer recycled plastics has grown since 1990, albeit it is low in comparison to other products, such as corrugated fiberboard (about 70%) and newspaper (nearly 80%) [24]. As documented by Geyer et al. [25] in 2015, about 9% of the world’s 6.3 billion tonnes of plastic garbage were recycled, while the other 12% and 79% were burnt and landfilled, respectively. The global rate of recycling in 2016, however, increased to over 14% of total plastic waste [26], with countries such as Japan, a major contributor, increasing waste recycling from 39% in 1996 to 83% in 2014 [27][28].

2. The Environmental and Health Impact of Plastic Waste Disposal in South African Townships

This section discusses the environmental and health impact of plastic waste disposal in South African townships as retrieved from secondary sources.

2.1. Environmental Impact

The increased human population impacts the distribution of plastic waste, and this can ultimately lead to pollution of the environment, which is evident in the decline of the natural environment [29], mortality of aquatic organisms [30] and blockage of sewage systems, especially in third world countries [31], thereby resulting in breeding grounds for mosquitoes and other disease-causing vectors as well as foul odours [32], reduced aeration and water percolation, causing reduced productivity in agricultural lands [33][34].

2.2. Health Impact

Plastic polymers are commonly assumed to be harmless, yet they pose little risk to society; however, diverse types of additives, as well as residual monomers presumably preserved from these polymers, are speculated to be the source of the health risks. [28]. Most of the plastic additives are known endocrine disruptors and carcinogens [35], and these chemicals harm humans primarily through skin contact (linked to dermatitis), ingestion and inhalation [36]. Microplastics are vital toxins that can form complexes in the food chain after being consumed by a variety of marine and freshwater life, resulting in a variety of health problems [37]. When and if consumed, animals exposed to plastic additives and microplastics can be harmful to humans, and through the detection of environmental contaminants, biomonitoring investigations on human tissues have indicated that plastic elements are found in the human species [38]. All the above are not just localised but global issues and hence applicable to South African townships.
Between 1994 and 2009, consumption of fish in South Africa increased by over 26%, posing human health risks because the ingestion of some aquatic species might trigger the transmission of microplastics, toxins and microorganisms to humans [39]. Ref. [40] research conducted for the World Health Organization (WHO) regarding the risk of microplastics to humans showed that there is inadequate data to draw firm conclusions on nanoparticle toxicity as no reliable evidence suggests it is a concern. However, subject to the dependence of the population on seafood, a varied amount of plastics has been quantified to have been ingested from such food groups as mussels and shrimp in fifty countries in Europe, the Persian Gulf and China [41]. These food groups are taken whole, unlike fish, which is normally cleaned first to eliminate microplastics from the digestive system. For South Africa, edible marine organisms that have been researched for microplastics are brown mussels [42] and four species of estuarial fish [43], but data on levels of transferal of microplastics from edible aquatic species to humans were unavailable for South Africa. [44] discovered that people who ingest a variety of marine species, including filter feeders(e.g., mussels and oysters), may be exposed to microplastics.
Microplastics have been found in human faeces in several investigations, with most particles (90 per cent) being expelled [45]. Some particles may go from the stomach to the lymphatic and circulatory systems, whereas others are more likely to pass through cell tissues, the blood-brain barrier and the placenta [46]. The human body reacts to these particles by triggering immunosuppression, immunological activation and aberrant inflammatory responses [47]. Unfortunately, there is a void in the literature in South Africa at the time of this study, but considering the level of dietary seafood content of a significant section of the country’s population, this area should be prioritised for future research. In humans, however, air inhalation and drinking water appear to be the primary pathways of microplastic uptake, with ingestion as a secondary route [40]. Waste (including plastic) burning is identified in townships by Mngomezulu [48], Nkosi [49] and Muchapondwa [50], and the particles produced by this can be inhaled or ingested when they settle on the water. Microplastics are classified as harmful vectors because they may enable chemical transfer in food types consumed by humans; hence, the chemical ingestion related to microplastics may be a greater concern than the intake of the plastics themselves.

3. Recommendations

With the ongoing concerns over global warming, countries are working to reduce environmental and health challenges caused by plastic waste by lowering the manufacture of plastics and plastic products, prohibiting excessive packaging, litter collection and recycling. In contributing to this, herein recommends the need to enforce realistic policies. It is also essential for the government to implement and enforce regulations that will check processes of manufacturing, consuming, using and the final disposal of plastics. To prevent zero diversion to landfills and indiscriminate disposal to the environment, the 3Rs, reduce, reuse, and recycle must be employed at all stages. Waste management plays a major role in reducing the toxic effects of plastic wastes on public health and the environment, and hence there is a necessity for the advancement of practices that will ensure proper plastic waste collection, treatment and disposal.
Furthermore, the general populace must be educated on the potential health and environmental effects of plastic waste pollution as this will help towards reducing the pollution rate and conserve the quality of the natural environment. Also, bioplastics is a plastic produced from cellulose that is made of wood pulp by a British chemist in the 1850s, and if manufacturers can embrace its use, the problem of plastic waste generation and the accompanying environmental and public health effects can be handled. Furthermore, biodegradability with little or no toxic residue will also aid in protecting the ecosystem from the dangers of traditional plastic wastes.

References

  1. Polymer AAA. Recyclable Plastic Materials. Available online: https://www.aaapolymer.com/recyclable-plastic-materials/ (accessed on 30 August 2021).
  2. Mikhailovich, K.; Fitzgerald, R. Community responses to the removal of bottled water on a university campus. Int. J. Sustain. High. Educ. 2014, 15, 330–342.
  3. Eriksen, M.K.; Christiansen, J.D.; Daugaard, A.E.; Astrup, T.F. Closing the loop for PET, PE and PP waste from households: Influence of material properties and product design for plastic recycling. Waste Manag. 2019, 96, 75–85.
  4. Made Safe. How to Avoid Toxic Chemicals in Plastics. Available online: https://www.madesafe.org/avoid-toxic-chemicals-plastics/ (accessed on 13 December 2019).
  5. Guo, J.J.; Huang, X.P.; Xiang, L.; Wang, Y.Z.; Li, Y.W.; Li, H.; Cai, Q.Y.; Mo, C.H.; Wong, M.H. Source, migration and toxicology of microplastics in soil. Environ. Int. 2020, 137, 105263.
  6. Rochman, C.M. The complex mixture, fate and toxicity of chemicals associated with plastic debris in the marine environment. In Marine Anthropogenic Litter; Springer, Cham: London, UK, 2015; pp. 117–140.
  7. Hahladakis, J.N.; Iacovidou, E. Closing the loop on plastic packaging materials: What is quality and how does it affect their circularity? Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 630, 1394–1400.
  8. Khan, F.; Ahmed, W.; Najmi, A. Understanding consumers’ behavior intentions towards dealing with the plastic waste: Perspective of a developing country. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2019, 142, 49–58.
  9. Department of Environmental Affairs. State of Waste Report South Africa. 2018. Available online: http://sawic.environment.gov.za/?menu=346 (accessed on 30 August 2021).
  10. Rasmeni, Z.Z.; Madyira, D.M. A review of the current municipal solid waste management practices in Johannesburg City townships. Procedia Manuf. 2019, 35, 1025–1031.
  11. Association for Water and Rural Development, AWARD. South Africa Is Drowning in Its Own Waste—Are Our Regulators Taking This Crisis Seriously? 2019. Available online: http://award.org.za/index.php/2019/02/01/south-africa-is-drowning-in-its-own-waste-are-our-regulators-taking-this-crisis-seriously/#:~:text=South%20Africans%20generate%20roughly%2054,90%25%20is%20landfilled%20or%20dumped (accessed on 5 May 2021).
  12. Oyake-Ombis, L.; van Vliet, B.J.; Mol, A.P. Managing plastic waste in East Africa: Niche innovations in plastic production and solid waste. Habitat Int. 2015, 48, 188–197.
  13. Haas, M.; Galler, R.; Scibile, L.; Benedikt, M. Waste or valuable resource—A critical European review on reusing and managing tunnel excavation material. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2020, 162, 105048.
  14. Sun, J.; Dai, X.; Wang, Q.; van Loosdrecht, M.C.; Ni, B.J. Microplastics in wastewater treatment plants: Detection, occurrence and removal. Water Res. 2019, 152, 21–37.
  15. Hahladakis, J.N.; Velis, C.A.; Weber, R.; Iacovidou, E.; Purnell, P. An overview of chemical additives present in plastics: Migration, release, fate and environmental impact during their use, disposal and recycling. J. Hazard. Mater. 2018, 344, 179–199.
  16. Balabanič, D.; Rupnik, M.; Klemenčič, A.K. Negative impact of endocrine-disrupting compounds on human reproductive health. Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 2011, 23, 403–416.
  17. Okoronkwo, N.E.; Igwe, J.C.; Onwuchekwa, E.C. Risk and health implications of polluted soils for crop production. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2005, 4, 1521–1524.
  18. Vanapalli, K.R.; Sharma, H.B.; Ranjan, V.P.; Samal, B.; Bhattacharya, J.; Dubey, B.K.; Goel, S. Challenges and strategies for effective plastic waste management during and post COVID-19 pandemic. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 750, 141514.
  19. Uvarajan, T.; Gani, P.; Chuan, N.C.; Zulkernain, N.H. Reusing plastic waste in the production of bricks and paving blocks: A review. Eur. J. Environ. Civ. Eng. 2021, 1–34.
  20. Jambeck, J.; Hardesty, B.D.; Brooks, A.L.; Friend, T.; Teleki, K.; Fabres, J.; Beaudoin, Y.; Bamba, A.; Francis, J.; Ribbink, A.J. Challenges and emerging solutions to the land-based plastic waste issue in Africa. Mar. Policy 2018, 96, 256–263.
  21. Zheng, J.; Suh, S. Strategies to reduce the global carbon footprint of plastics. Nat. Clim. Change 2019, 9, 374–378.
  22. Ragaert, K.; Delva, L.; Van Geem, K. Mechanical and chemical recycling of solid plastic waste. Waste Manag. 2017, 69, 24–58.
  23. Dahlbo, H.; Poliakova, V.; Mylläri, V.; Sahimaa, O.; Anderson, R. Recycling potential of post-consumer plastic packaging waste in Finland. Waste Manag. 2018, 71, 52–61.
  24. Obiadi, B.N. The positive impact of plastic recycling in the built environment, architecture and the waters of the world. Int. J. Trend Sci. Res. Dev. 2020, 4, 1427–1435.
  25. Geyer, R.; Jambeck, J.R.; Law, K.L. Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Sci. Adv. 2017, 3, e1700782.
  26. Shen, M.; Huang, W.; Chen, M.; Song, B.; Zeng, G.; Zhang, Y. (Micro) plastic crisis: Unignorable contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 254, 120138.
  27. Plastic Waste Management Institute. An Introduction to Plastic Recycling. 2019. Available online: pwmi.or.jp/ei/plastic_recycling_2019.pdf (accessed on 13 May 2021).
  28. Sekhampu, T.J. Determinants of poverty in a South African township. J. Soc. Sci. 2013, 34, 145–153.
  29. Gabuya, R.J. Knowledge, attitude, & practice regarding environmental hazards of plastic use. AIJR Prepr. 2021, 7, 1483–1486.
  30. Shaikh, I.V.; Shaikh, V.A.E. A comprehensive review on assessment of plastic debris in aquatic environment and its prevalence in fishes and other aquatic animals in India. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 779, 146421.
  31. Alda-Vidal, C.; Browne, A.L.; Hoolohan, C. “Unflushables”: Establishing a global agenda for action on everyday practices associated with sewer blockages, water quality, and plastic pollution. Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Water 2020, 7, e1452.
  32. Tutu, R.A.; Busingye, J.D. Environmental risks to health. In Migration, Social Capital, and Health; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2019; pp. 43–69.
  33. Silva, A.L.P.; Prata, J.C.; Walker, T.R.; Duarte, A.C.; Ouyang, W.; Barcelò, D.; Rocha-Santos, T. Increased plastic pollution due to COVID-19 pandemic: Challenges and recommendations. Chem. Eng. J. 2021, 405, 126683.
  34. De-la-Torre, G.E. Microplastics: An emerging threat to food security and human health. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 57, 1601–1608.
  35. Fucic, A.; Galea, K.S.; Duca, R.C.; El Yamani, M.; Frery, N.; Godderis, L.; Halldorsson, T.I.; Iavicoli, I.; Ndaw, S.; Ribeiro, E. Potential health risk of endocrine disruptors in construction sector and plastics industry: A new paradigm in occupational health. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1229.
  36. Aalto-Korte, K.; Suuronen, K. Plastic materials and glues. Contact Dermat. 2019, 2019, 1–28.
  37. Wright, S.L.; Kelly, F.J. Plastic and human health: A micro issue? Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017, 51, 6634–6647.
  38. Smith, M.; Love, D.C.; Rochman, C.M.; Neff, R.A. Microplastics in seafood and the implications for human health. Curr. Environ. Health Rep. 2018, 5, 375–386.
  39. Naidoo, T.; Rajkaran, A. Impacts of plastic debris on biota and implications for human health: A South African perspective. S. Afr. J. Sci. 2020, 116, 1–8.
  40. Marsden, P.; Koelmans, A.A.; Bourdon-Lacombe, J.; Gouin, T.; D’Anglada, L.; Cunliffe, D.; Jarvis, P.; Fawell, J.; De France, J. Microplastics in Drinking Water; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2019.
  41. Barboza, L.G.A.; Vethaak, A.D.; Lavorante, B.R.; Lundebye, A.K.; Guilhermino, L. Marine microplastic debris: An emerging issue for food security, food safety and human health. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2018, 133, 336–348.
  42. Gerber, G. More than Just Food: Mussels as Biomonitors of Microplastic Pollution in the KwaZulu-Natal Coastal Environment. Ph.D. Thesis, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa, 2017.
  43. Naidoo, T.; Thompson, R.C.; Rajkaran, A. Quantification and characterization of microplastics ingested by selected juvenile fish species associated with mangroves in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Environ. Pollut. 2020, 257, 113635.
  44. Jeebhay, M.F.; Lopata, A.L.; Robins, T.G. Seafood processing in South Africa: A study of working practices, occupational health services and allergic health problems in the industry. Occup. Med. 2000, 50, 406–413.
  45. Yong, C.Q.Y.; Valiyaveetill, S.; Tang, B.L. Toxicity of microplastics and nanoplastics in mammalian systems. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 1509.
  46. Barboza, L.G.A.; Lopes, C.; Oliveira, P.; Bessa, F.; Otero, V.; Henriques, B.; Raimundo, J.; Caetano, M.; Vale, C.; Guilhermino, L. Microplastics in wild fish from North East Atlantic Ocean and its potential for causing neurotoxic effects, lipid oxidative damage, and human health risks associated with ingestion exposure. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 717, 134625.
  47. Imran, M.; Das, K.R.; Naik, M.M. Co-selection of multi-antibiotic resistance in bacterial pathogens in metal and microplastic contaminated environments: An emerging health threat. Chemosphere 2019, 215, 846–857.
  48. Mngomezulu, S.K.; Mbanga, S.; Adeniran, A.A.; Soyez, K. Factors influencing solid waste management practices in Joe Slovo Township, Nelson Mandela Bay. J. Public Adm. 2020, 55, 400–411.
  49. Nkosi, L.F. An Evaluation of the Municipal Solid Waste Management System within City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality, in Mamelodi East Township, Gauteng Province South Africa. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2014.
  50. Muchapondwa, E. A cost-effectiveness analysis of options for reducing pollution in Khayelitsha township, South Africa. TD J. Transdiscipl. Res. S. Afr. 2010, 6, 333–358.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Others
Contributor MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Adeleye Adeniran
View Times: 1.7K
Entry Collection: Environmental Sciences
Revisions: 3 times (View History)
Update Date: 30 Jan 2022
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    Video Production Service
    Feedback