Unlocking the Potential of Fish to Improve Food

Version	Summary	Created by	Modification	Content Size	Created at	Operation
1		Rodney Muringai	+ 3136 word(s)	3136	2022-01-04 10:32:00	\|
2	Format change	Jessie Wu	-22 word(s)	3114	2022-01-13 08:33:13	\|

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/su14010318

Approximately one-third of the global population suffering from chronic hunger are in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). In addition to high prevalence of chronic hunger, millions of people suffer from micronutrient deficiencies. Meanwhile, there is growing consensus across scientific disciplines concurring that fish plays a crucial role in improving food and nutrition security.

sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) fish

1. Fish Production and Consumption Trends in Sub-Saharan Africa

In SSA, fish production has been growing at a faster rate than any other agricultural product due to population growth and growing appreciation of healthy and nutritious fish-based food ^[1]^[2]. According to the FAO ^[3], Africa’s total fish production has increased in the past few decades reaching about 11.8 million tons of fish produced in 2017. However, the contribution of African countries to total fish production varies greatly among countries due to their geographic locations and availability of water resources. For instance, some countries are coastal countries with access to marine fish resources and some countries are landlocked endowed with great lakes and river basins which are highly productive. South Africa, Nigeria, and Uganda are the top capture fishery producers while Nigeria, Uganda, and Ghana are the top aquaculture producers in SSA ^[4]^[5]. However, in recent years, capture fisheries have been stagnant due to several reasons such as overexploitation, use of destructive fishing methods, and climate change ^[6]^[7]^[8]. Therefore, the observed increase in the region’s fish production might be attributed to the development of the aquaculture sector. The aquaculture sector is acknowledged as the fastest food-producing sector surpassing farm animal meat production and landings from capture fisheries ^[9]. In Africa alone, the aquaculture sector recorded a twenty-fold production increase from 110,200 to 2,196,000 tons from 1995 to 2018 with a compound rate of about 16% per year, and the contribution by weight to total fish production increased from 6.2% to 18.5% from 2000 to 2017 ^[4].

According to the United Nations (UN), global per capita fish consumption has more than doubled from approximately 9 kg per capita per annum to about 20.5 kg per capita per annum ^[10]. Even though fish accounts for more than 30% of total animal protein in Africa, per capita fish consumption within the continent is nearly half of the global average ^[11]^[1]^[10]. In coastal countries in East and West Africa, including Ghana, Sao Tome and Principe, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, and The Gambia, fish accounts for more than 50% of all animal protein consumed and accounts for 30% to 40% in inland countries such as Malawi, Uganda, and Zambia ^[10]. Per capita fish consumption projections indicate that fish consumption is expected to increase on all continents except in Africa as population growth outpaces fish supply ^[11]^[1]^[12]^[13]^[14]. African fish consumption per capita is expected to drop by 3% from 9.9 kg in 2015–2017 to 9.6 kg in 2027, with a more substantial decrease in SSA ^[12]. Table 1 indicates low fish consumption per capita levels in most SSA regions indicating underutilization of fish resources especially in regions with high prevalence of undernutrition and where the food and nutrition security situation is worsening ^[12]. Increasing fish consumption can contribute to the reduction of undernutrition.

Table 1. Per capita fish consumption and fish and animal protein intake by region, 2013.

Region	Population (Million)	Fish/Animal Protein Intake (%)	Fish Consumption (kg/Person/Year)
World	6997.3	16.2	19.0
Africa	995.4	19.3	10.8
Central Africa	67.5	26.2	14.1
Eastern Africa	333.0	14.7	4.8
Northern Africa	203.2	15.0	13.5
Southern Africa	60.4	5.2	6.1
Western Africa	331.3	34.1	15.3

Source: Adopted and modified from (Chan et al. ^[11])

From a food and nutrition security perspective, the projected decline in African per capita fish consumption, which is a source of valuable micronutrients and protein, will affect millions of malnourished people, particularly the most vulnerable groups (women, children, and the poor). Declining fish intake can impact food and nutrition security and their ability to meet malnutrition targets of the United Nation’s SDG 2 which aims to eradicate all forms of hunger and malnutrition by 2030.

2. The Contribution of Fish and Fisheries to Food and Nutrition Security

2.1. Fish Nutrients Composition

Fish nutrient content depends on species and harvest waters, and thus, nutrient content varies among species. There is limited data on species-specific nutritional composition particularly for species consumed in SSA. However, fish is a rich source of protein and essential nutrients, and there is a growing recognition of its nutritional and health-promoting qualities ^[15]. Generally, fish muscles constitute about 50–60% of the fish’s weight, and the muscle constitutes about 16–21% protein ^[16]^[17]. Fish has three main groups of protein which are myofibrillar, sarcoplasmic, and stroma proteins which constitute 70–80%, 20–30%, and 3% of the total muscle protein respectively ^[17]. Human adults are recommended to take 45–65 g of protein a day and an intake of 100 g of fish can contribute about 15–25% of the total daily protein requirement ^[14]. In addition, the bioavailability of fish protein is about 5–15% higher than that from plants ^[18]^[19].

Fish contains lipids (fatty acids) which have long-chain unsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) in the form of arachidonic acid (ARA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) ^[18]^[15]^[20]. Fish species such as sardines, mackerel, anchovies, and some salmon species are rich in EPA and DHA making them important sources of these fatty acids ^[14]^[21]. Nevertheless, the quantity of the total lipids may differ between different fish species and between various tissue organs within the fish depending on their aquatic environment, species feeding habits, spawning period, and physiochemical process ^[21]. Furthermore, fish is an important source of essential micronutrients such as vitamins A, B, and D ^[15]^[19], and bioavailable micronutrients such as, but not limited to, calcium, iodine, iron, zinc, phosphorus, and selenium fluorine ^[16]^[22]. The FAO/INFOODS Global Food Composition Database for Fish and Shellfish (uFiSh) provides nutrient data for various fish and shellfish species, covering different catch regions and/or origins of aquaculture production available at http://www.fao.org/3/i6655e/i6655e.pdf (accessed on 7 September 2021) ^[23]. However, the database only shows the nutrition composition of only 25.7% of the total of 2033 species listed.

It is widely known that small-sized species are an important source of these micronutrients as they are consumed as a whole, with heads and bones ^[24]^[25]. Sub-Saharan African waters are endowed with these micronutrient-rich small indigenous species such as the dagaa (Rastrineobola argentea) found in Lake Victoria, Usipa (Engraulicypris sardella) of Lake Malawi, Kapenta (Limnothrissa miodon) found in Lakes Cahora Bassa, Kariba, Kivu, and Tanganyika, and Guimean sprat (Pellonula leonensis) in Lakes Kainji and Volta ^[26]. Thus, the consumption of fish, particularly small indigenous fish species, has a great potential to address the problem of micronutrient deficiencies in people living in the SSA region.

2.2. Benefits to Human Nutrition and Health

Fish, particularly small fish, may be the most accessible, affordable, or preferred source of animal protein for many poor or rural populations ^[18]. Researchers concur that fish consumption has several benefits to human nutrition and health which include but are not limited to, reducing blood pressure, lowering cholesterol levels ^[27], preventing cancer, and decreasing inflammatory diseases such as arthritis ^[28], as well as improving maternal and childhood health outcomes, supporting cognitive development, alleviating stunting in children, strengthening the immune system, and reducing cardiovascular disease ^[15]^[24]^[29]. The FAO and World Health Organization ^[30] argue that the combination of EPA and DHA in fish, oily fish, in particular, lowers the risk of coronary heart disease mortality by up to 36%. Experts stressed that fish consumption reduces mortality due to coronary heart disease in the adult population by 20% ^[31] and improves the neurodevelopment of fetuses and infants, and is therefore important for women of childbearing age, pregnant women, and nursing mothers ^[15]. Poly-unsaturated fatty acids in the form of DHA positively influence the optimal brain and neural system development in neonates and infants which is particularly important during pregnancy and the first two years of life ^[25]. Fish also improves the absorption of micronutrients such as iron and zinc from plant-source foods when consumed together ^[27].

The contribution of fish to human health and nutrition has been observed in many countries in SSA. For instance, a study by Fiorella et al. ^[32] on the influence of fish consumption on breast milk acid concentrations in lactating women around Lake Victoria in Kenya found high levels of beneficial breast milk LCPUFA and essential ALA and DHA, exceeding the global and regional averages, when fish was consumed approximately twice within 72 h. Intake of LCPUFA is important for maternal and child nutrition ^[32]. Moreover, a study by Marinda et al. ^[24] on the contribution of fish to nutritional status in Zambia found that children who consumed fish had better nutritional outcomes and were less likely to be stunted. Small fish which are abundant in the region have high levels of micronutrients such as vitamin A and B12, iron, and zinc which are critical for child growth and development, brain function, and nervous system maintenance ^[24]. In Ghana, a study by Akuffo and Quagrainie ^[33] concluded that fish farming households attained higher nutritional quality than non-fish farming households due to direct consumption of their fish catch. This evidence strongly suggests that fish may have a crucial role in preventing some of the most impactful diseases of modern society and addresses local diet-related diseases, particularly in SSA where there are severe nutrient deficiencies.

2.3. Risks to Human Health

Despite being a treasure store for essential nutrients that are beneficial to human health, consumption of contaminated fish poses threats to human health. Fish can contain several hazardous organic and inorganic compounds that pose risk to human health ^[15]. According to the Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel of the Global Environment Facility (STAP), the compounds found in contaminated fish that present the most significant health hazards are heavy metals such as cadmium, organic tin, and methylmercury ^[34]. For instance, methylmercury which is neurotoxic is known to have the strongest toxicity to humans which affects the central nervous system in children, the peripheral nervous system in adults causing loss of skin sensation, visual constriction, ataxia and loss of speech and hearing ^[15]^[35]^[36]^[37]. In addition, exposure to methylmercury during fetal development may cause severe mental retardation, birth defects, or even fetal death ^[37]. Studies, for example, Adegbola et al. ^[38] assessed health risks associated with consumption of fish from polluted Ogun and Eleyele rivers in Nigeria and the study findings show that consumers of fish from the study sites might experience significant non-carcinogenic health risk. In Zimbabwe, a study by Manjengwa et al. ^[39] found that about 43% of fish consumers reported cases of bloody diarrhea and loose stool after consuming fish from Lake Chivero.

Cyanobacteria, which are found in most inland waters, produce highly toxic secondary metabolites known as cyanotoxins which are hazardous to humans ^[40]. These toxins which include nodularins, microcystins, and cylindrospermopsins accumulate in fish tissues and human consumption of contaminated fish can cause gastrointestinal disturbances, skin toxicity, liver, and kidney damage in humans ^[40]^[41]. Furthermore, the growth of the aquaculture subsector has been squired by a rapid increasing usage of antibiotics/antimicrobial agents including those used in human therapeutics to defeat the challenges associated to unhealthy and sanitary conditions in aquaculture ^[15]. There is abundant evidence suggesting that unrestricted use of antibiotics is detrimental to fish and human health ^[15]^[42]. However, in spite of the health risks associated with consumption of contaminated fish, experts tend to agree that the positive effects of high fish consumption surpass the potential negative effects associated with contamination risks ^[15].

2.4. Socio-Economic Benefits of Fish and Fisheries

Besides being a good source of immense nutrients that contribute significantly to human nutrition and health, fisheries already play an important social and economic role in Africa. The sector represents a key socioeconomic net through contributions to job creation, generating income, and foreign exchange earnings for several countries ^[17]. The SSA fisheries sector employs about 12.3 million people of which half of the people are fishers, the other 42.4%, and 7.5% are processors and fish farm workers, respectively (Table 2) ^[43]. According to de Graaf and Garibaldi ^[43] inland fisheries employ the majority (40.4%) of fishers and fish processors followed by marine artisanal, then marine industrial and aquaculture, which employs about 32.9%, 19.2%, and 7.5%, respectively (Table 3). While most of the jobs in the fisheries sector are dominated by men, women constitute more than 25% of the people working in the fisheries sector, and the majority (69.2%) of those women work as processors in inland fisheries ^[43]^[44]. In SSA, women are involved in post-harvest activities such as fish processing, fish trading, supplying fishing gear, and providing credit ^[45]. For instance, in Msaka (Lake Malawi) and Kachulu (Lake Chilwa), women dominated as local brokers, 67% in both Msaka and Kachulu beaches, processors, 51% in Msaka beach and 81% in Kachulu beach, and as fish exporters, 100% and 83% in Msaka and Kachulu beaches, respectively ^[46]. In addition, 80–90% of fish traders in Congo are women ^[47]. This evidence demonstrates that the fisheries sector plays a significant role in improving livelihoods and empowering women, the poorest and most vulnerable group in developing countries ^[47]. Women empowerment and improved livelihood strategies enhance fishing households’ incomes. A study by Kapembwa et al. ^[48] confirmed that fishing and its related activities have a bearing on the levels of fishing households’ incomes of fishers in Lake Itezhi-Tezhi in Zambia in general. Incomes from fish sales increase the purchasing power resulting in a greater proportion of income being spent on food, enhancing food and nutrition security ^[18]. Thus, incomes from fisheries and their related activities enhance both households’ economic access to food and food and nutrition security. Fisheries also provide a safety net for the poor when other economic opportunities are limited, for instance, Kupaza et al. ^[49] indicated that more than 80% of fishers in Zimbabwe undertook fishing as a part-time or full-time activity due to high unemployment in the country.

Table 2. Distribution of employment in the fisheries and aquaculture sector.

Type of Work	Number of Employees (Thousands)	Share within the Sector (%)
Fishers	6147	50.1
Processors	5202	42.4
Fish farm workers	920	7.5

Source: Adopted and modified from de Graaf and Garibaldi ^[43].

Table 3. Employment by subsector.

Subsector	Number of Employees (Thousands)	Share Subsector (%)
Inland fisheries	4958	40.4
Marine artisanal fisheries	4041	32.9
Marine industrial fisheries	2350	19.2
Aquaculture	920	7.5

Source: Adopted and modified from de Graaf and Garibaldi ^[43].

According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) ^[50], fish is one of the most highly traded commodities globally placing aquatic environments (oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and wetlands, etc.) at the center of economic growth. In Africa, the fisheries sector contributes about 1.6% or USD 24 billion to the continent’s GDP ^[43]. However, the contribution to national GDPs is highly variable across the region and within the region. For instance, in West Africa, fisheries contribute about 2% of the region’s total GDP but in Senegal alone (a west-African country) fisheries contribute about 13.5% to the GDP ^[51], and the sector contributes about 2.7–6.6% in east African countries such as Madagascar, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zanzibar ^[43]. However, research indicates that the contribution of fisheries to GDP especially is undervalued due to the nature of the industry; most of the fish produce is consumed or traded locally and does not enter the formal economy and many fisheries operate in remote areas ^[52]^[53]. For example, Belhabib et al. ^[54] found that the contribution of small-scale fisheries to Guinea’s GDP was six times higher than the reported estimates. However, economic growth alone does not solve the problem of undernutrition and malnutrition ^[55]; however, Gillespie et al. ^[56] argues that a 10% increase in economic growth reduces the challenges of undernutrition and malnutrition by only 6%. Thus, the contribution of fisheries to SSA’s economic growth might help to alleviate the challenges of hunger and undernutrition in the region.

3. Opportunities and Challenges of Fish for Food and Nutrition Security in Sub-Sharan Africa

As a rich source of animal protein and valuable micronutrients, fish has great potential to address the high levels of undernutrition and malnutrition in SSA. The SSA region is characterized by high levels of undernutrition and malnutrition causing stunted growth in children ^[24]. Nutrients found in fish can contribute towards the much-needed nutrients from animal source foods especially in children ^[24]. However, despite being a nutrient treasure store, fish consumption in SSA is still low compared with other regions globally ^[57]^[1]. Fish is more affordable than other terrestrial animal sources of protein such as red meat, making it more accessible to the poor ^[58]. Therefore, increasing fish consumption and securing its supply might lessen undernutrition and malnutrition in the region, giving fishers and fish farmers opportunities to increase production. Furthermore, the observed and projected rapid population growth in SSA will fuel the increasing demand for fish food in the region. The projected increase in fish food demand ^[11] represents important opportunities for fish sector entrepreneurs to take part in the region’s economic development.

Despite the immense potential of fisheries to improve the region’s food and nutrition security and sustainable development, the SSA fisheries sector is facing numerous challenges that hinder the ability of the sector to contribute to alleviating hunger and malnutrition. Research indicates that fish catches from wild sources have been declining due to several anthropogenic factors and climate change. Key anthropogenic constraints affecting capture fisheries production in SSA include, but are not limited to, overfishing, habitat destruction, poor governance, and unreported and unregulated fishing ^[1]^[59]. For instance, Ababouch and Fipi ^[51] postulate that about 50% of fish stocks in West Africa are overexploited, with unregulated fishing activities as one of the primary drivers of overexploitation. Overexploitation of fishery resources threatens not just the ecosystems but the socioeconomic condition, particularly the food security condition of the fishing communities. Overexploitation reduces the quantity and quality of available catch, often contributing to poverty and food insecurity ^[60]. Therefore, to ensure the sustainability of fishery resources and food and nutrition security for fishing communities, fishing activities should be regulated. Unregulated fishing practices will have detrimental effects on the fishery resources and food security. For example, overfishing, poor governance, and unregulated fishing led to the decline in abundance of the commercially important Chambo (Oreochromis spp) in Lake Malombe and Lake Malawi ^[6]^[61]^[62]. Without undervaluing the severe impacts caused by anthropogenic factors on fisheries, climate change is widely acknowledged to be the greatest threat to fish production because it interacts with and amplifies the existing non-climatic stressors ^[4]^[61]^[63]. Several researchers such as Ndebele-Murisa et al. ^[64]; Potts et al. ^[65]; Belhabib et al. ^[66]; Cohen et al. ^[7]; and Utete et al. ^[67] agree that climate change is significantly contributing to declines in fish abundance in several African fisheries sources. Although African fish production is being affected by climate change, the magnitude of the effects of climate change on fish stocks are not homogenous across the region. For instance, fish production from African inland fisheries are more prone to climate change as they are more dependent on the external climatic drivers compared with marine fisheries ^[13]. Changing climatic variables affects fish productivity through changing fish chemicals, geographical distribution, and biological processes such as spawning, metabolism, and reproduction ^[8]^[65].

Declining fish productivity has severe effects on food and nutrition security, employment opportunities, and standards of living of fishing households who have limited alternative livelihoods and millions of people who are mainly dependent on fish as the main or only source of animal protein. The true burden of declining fish resources falls upon the poorest and vulnerable groups who will be losing access to an important source of cheap protein and valuable micronutrients ^[68]. In addition, declining fish catches affect household income, thereby, affecting households’ economic access to safe and nutritious food of their preferences.

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Rodney Muringai

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