Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Choungo Nguekeng Patrick Bustrel
 + 2056 word(s) 2056 2021-12-16 04:33:56 |
2 format corrected.
Beatrix Zheng
 + 165 word(s) 2221 2021-12-20 04:31:33 | |
3 format corrected.
Beatrix Zheng
 + 165 word(s) 2221 2021-12-20 04:32:33 |

Video Upload Options

We provide professional Video Production Services to translate complex research into visually appealing presentations. Would you like to try it?
No, upload directly Yes

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Patrick Bustrel, C.N. Shea Butter Tree for Nutritional Value. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/17297 (accessed on 21 December 2024).
Patrick Bustrel CN. Shea Butter Tree for Nutritional Value. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/17297. Accessed December 21, 2024.
Patrick Bustrel, Choungo Nguekeng. "Shea Butter Tree for Nutritional Value" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/17297 (accessed December 21, 2024).
Patrick Bustrel, C.N. (2021, December 19). Shea Butter Tree for Nutritional Value. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/17297
Patrick Bustrel, Choungo Nguekeng. "Shea Butter Tree for Nutritional Value." Encyclopedia. Web. 19 December, 2021.
Shea Butter Tree for Nutritional Value
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/f12121740

Vitellaria paradoxa (C.F.Gaertn.) is a multi-purpose tree species distributed in a narrow band across sub-Saharan Africa. The species is integrated into cropping and agroforestry systems as a nutritional and economic resource, which provides a range of environmental services. Integration of the species into land-use systems provides an essential source of livelihoods and income for local populations. The economic potential of the shea butter tree derives from its edible products, which also serve cosmetic and pharmaceutical applications.

agroforestry biodiversity conservation domestication genetic resources livelihoods molecular marker sub-Saharan Africa

1. Introduction

Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) contribute to the livelihood improvement of local communities [1]. They play a significant role in poverty alleviation among rural farmers by providing food security and reducing malnutrition [2][3]. Today, many crops and trees on our planet are utilized for human consumption, providing nutritional and economic resources in smallholder farming systems [4]. Many of these edible plants are indigenous local fruit tree species adapted to their ecosystem, with potential for domestication. Local communities face difficulties due to overexploitation of forest and woodland resources, which are rapidly depleting [5][6][7]. With growing populations, and demand for food expected to double over the next 30 years, solutions are required to address future food and nutritional security in smallholder agricultural systems, including aspects of nutrition, plant science, genomics, and agroforestry [8][9].
Trees play a significant role in African agricultural landscapes and agroforestry parklands [10], contributing substantially to rural livelihoods [11]. Tree genetic resources can improve soil fertility, among other environmental services, and provide sources of livelihood through products such as timber, fruits, and medicines [12]. Other ecosystem services provided by trees include conservation of associated biodiversity, providing food and shelter for living organisms, regulating temperature, shade, and carbon sequestration [13].
The African Orphan Crop Consortium (AOCC) has been working with World Agroforestry (the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry, CIFOR-ICRAF) on genomic resources for the improvement of underutilized species which have hitherto received little attention from the scientific community, with a particular focus on trees. The objective of this consortium is to modernize and improve the efficiency of plant breeding practices to improve yield, climate resilience, and nutrition, thus improving the livelihoods and quality of life of smallholder farmers [14][15][16][17]. Target species provide vitamins, minerals, and essential micronutrients in the diets of producer communities. Early results on two Artocarpus species, jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) and breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis), have resulted in their genome sequencing and publication [18]. Some genomic data have also been generated for white Acacia (Faidherbia albida), marula (Sclerocarya birrea), and moringa (Moringa oleifera) [19]. These species are classified as crucial African orphan crops with strong potential to improve the livelihoods of farmers [20].
One such species, the shea (butter) tree (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F.Gaertn.), known as karité in French, is an indigenous fruit tree belonging to the Sapotaceae family. There are two primary sub-species, namely nilotica, and paradoxa. It is found in a belt of Sudanic vegetation extending south of the Sahel within the western, central, and eastern regions of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) [21][22][23]. The shea tree is an essential source of income and livelihood, generating ecological and environmental benefits in the traditional parkland agroforestry system [24]. It is a multipurpose tree, yielding nutritious fruit pulp and kernels and a range of other derived products with edible and medicinal applications. The kernel lipids, known as shea butter, are consumed by rural households, and sold on local markets across the zone as an edible fat of great importance [24]. It is also used as an industrial feedstock in global supply chains serving the confectionery, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries. Aside from these value-added applications, the wood of the shea tree is used to produce charcoal of very high quality in terms of its density and performance [25]. Shea butter is referred to as ‘women’s gold’ due to the livelihood benefits that women farmers derive from shea production and processing across the value chain [26]. It is one of the priority species in the larger tree domestication and improvement program implemented on a long-term basis by World Agroforestry.
The AOCC has prioritized the shea tree as one of the 101 local plant species identified as crucial to develop livelihood options for many families across SSA [16]. However, the species has a weak regeneration ability in some areas (particularly in Cameroon) and is facing survival challenges due to deteriorating ecological conditions, poor soil, poor pollination, parasites, and anthropic pressures [25]. Domestication using traditional and advanced technologies, such as genomics, offers a means of selection for the development of new plant varieties that can help farmers. Scientists have been using phenotypic studies and environmental characterization in genetic variation to assess variation in compositional properties [2][27][28][29][30]. The shea tree can be considered a high-priority genetic resource of SSA countries [8][31]. The main objective of this review paper is to summarize the available information from the existing literature, identify research gaps relevant to the domestication potential of the shea tree, and consider potential for development of improved genetic material to support the needs of smallholder farmers. Specifically, the paper focuses on the genetic diversity, compositional and morphological variation, and population structure of V. paradoxa populations across their natural range.

2. Nutritional Composition

2.1. Nutritional Composition of Fruit Pulp

Across its range, shea tree fruit pulp is of high dietary and nutritional importance [32][33]. Different authors have reported variable nutritional composition of shea fruit pulp with different methods used for estimation. This variability is perhaps due to agroecological differences within the populations, or genetic differences (Table 1).
Table 1. Nutritional and mineral composition of shea butter tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) raw pulp.
Composition/Minerals (Alu and Randa 2019) a Muotono et al. (2017) b Raimi et al. (2014) c Aguzue et al. (2013) d Okullo et al. (2010) e Ugese et al. (2008) f
Moisture (%) NE 67 2.84 ± 0.13 4.58 72.4 ± 0.1 8.8
Energy (kJ/100 g dw) NE NE 2348± 0.41 NE NE 198.8
Carbohydrates
(mg/100 g dw)		 NE 8.1 21.8 ±0.27 72.0 19.4 ± 0.6 42.5
Crude protein
(mg/100 g dw)		 15.2 ± 0.63 4.2 9.3 ± 0.05 3.5 3.1 ± 0.1 3.5
Ash (mg/100 g dw) 3.75 ± 1.10 5.1 4.18 ± 0.10 8.95 3.6 ± 0.2 4.6
Crude fibre
(mg/100 g dw)		 6.38 ± 0.10 42.2 12.68 ±0.13 9.6 14.5 ± 1.7 39
Crude fat
(mg/100 g dw)		 NE 1.3 NE NE 1.5 ± 0.7 NE
Ca 0.18 ± 0.01 117.3 30.24 ±0.04 2.3 69.4 ± 0.1 NE
Cu NE 0.1 0.80 ± 0.00 NE NE NE
Fe NE 8.5 52.00 ±0.11 0.02 3.6 ± 0.1 NE
K 0.36 ± 0.02 830.3 61.70 ±0.30 NE 47.9 ± 0.2 NE
Mg 0.27 ± 0.02 57.2 6.24 ± 0.01 0.5 18.1 ± 0.3 NE
Mn NE 0.6 0.30 ± 0.02 0.2 NE NE
P 0.35 ± 0.02 39.8 NE NE NE NE
Na 0.09 ± 0.01 19.3 5.10 ± 0.01 NE 8.9 ± 0.1 NE
Zn NE 2.1 0.72 ± 0.00 NE NE NE
Note: All values are presented as the mean ± standard deviation. Abbreviations: dw—dry weight; NE—not examined. Source: a [34]; b [35]; c [36]; d [37]; e [38]; f [39].
 
Some researchers have estimated the moisture content of the dry shea fruit pulp to range from 8.8% to 72.4% [35][39]. A more significant moisture percentage of 67–80.3% has also been recorded. The variation of moisture content can be attributed to processing, storage methods, and seasonality. The following figures regarding shea tree fruit pulp are compared with Dacryodes edulis fruit. The fruit pulp contains the following macromolecules: crude fibre, 3.06 ± 0.16 mg/100 g dry weight (dw) compared with 42.2 mg/100 g dw for D. edulis; crude protein, 19.23 ± 0.76 mg/100 g dw compared with 4.2 mg/100 g dw for D. edulis; and carbohydrates, 15.03 ± 0.45 mg/100 g dw compared with 8.1 mg/100 g dw for D. edulis [35][40]. Other compounds, including calcium and iron, can be found in the shea tree fruit [32][38]. Therefore, it is an essential local fruit to improve the livelihood of local populations [41].
A crude protein content has been reported in the range from 15.2 g/100 g dw [34] to 3.5 g/100 g dw [37]. A crude lipid content of 4.2 g/100 g dw and a crude fibre content of 42.2 g/100 g dw have been described [35][39][42]. An ash content has been reported from 4.7 to 5.4 g/100 g dw [43][39]. The information presented could help to have an overview of the vital energy and nutritional source derived from the shea fruit pulp.

2.2. Biochemical and Phytochemical Composition of Shea Kernels and Butter

The average moisture content of dried shea kernels has been reported as 6.8% and 1.4% for the kernel and butter, respectively (Table 2). Kernels contain nearly 50% of fats that, after processing to butter, rise to 75%. It has a moderate mineral content of magnesium and calcium both in kernels and butter. The whole kernels are not edible due to their high levels of antinutritional factors, including tannins and catechins.
Table 2. Composition of shea kernels and butter. Adapted from Honfo (2015).
  Kernel References Butter References
Macronutrients
Moisture (%) 6.8 [44][45][46] 1.4 [47][48][49][50][51]
Carbohydrates (g/100 g dw) 30.9 [45][48][52] 22.3 [50]
Crude protein (g/100 g dw) 8.1 [45][48][52]    
Crude lipids (g/100 g dw) 45.2 [33][46][53][54] 75 [50]
Crude fibre (g/100 g dw) 9.1 [48][52]    
Ash (g/100 g dw) 2.5 [48][52][55] 2.3 [50]
Minerals (mg/100 g dw)
Ca 71.8 [45][49][52][56] 9.6 [49]
Cu 0.3 [49] 0.8 [49]
Fe 1.6 [49][52] 3.6 [49]
K 0.1 [56] 2.2 [49]
Mg 142.6 [49] 4.5 [49]
Mn 0.4 [56] 0.006 [56]
P 0.04 [45][52]    
Zn 0.9 [49] 2.7 [49]
Abbreviation: dw—dry weight.
The components of shea butter that affect its physicochemical properties are triglycerides and a large fraction of unsaponifiable compounds that are recognized as active principles in cosmetic products [57]. An unsaponifiable compound is a fraction identified in shea butter that does not dissolve in acetone. It could also be designated as a highly unsaturated compound that consists of a mixture of different polyisoprenes [58][59]. The average unsaponifiable content differs, depending on the authors, from 1.2% to 17.6% [49][60]. The acid value in the butter determines the way glycerides are decomposed by lipase; therefore, it assesses the impact that heat and light cause on the components. The results also help to indicate the oil quality. The value varies with an average of 8.1 mg KOH/g [61]. The free fatty acid (FFA) percentage has also been evaluated, ranging from 1% to 10.7% [62].
Authors have surveyed the fatty acid content of the butter. It is characterized by a total of 16 saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, with 5 of them (oleic, stearic, palmitic, linoleic, and arachidic) showing relatively high levels [33]. Oleic acid is dominant, from 37.2% to 60.7% [54][63], followed by stearic acid, varying from 29.5% to 55.7% [47][38][54]. The quantity and quality of fatty acids differ from one region to another. Authors have revealed that oleic acid is more dominant in butter coming from Uganda, while stearic acid is more dominant in butter coming from West African provenances [64][65][33]. Palmitic acid varies from 3.3% [33] to 7.5% [38]. The linoleic acid content is between 4.3% and 8.0%. This fatty acid is essential in nutrition because it is a component of the cell membrane [46][55][66]. Arachidic acid varies between 0.8% and 1.8% [64][33][38]. The data provided reveal a significant variation in the composition of kernels and butter.
An assessment of the phytochemical diversity and quality of shea kernels has revealed that they are rich in anti-inflammatory phytochemical constituents [67]. Triterpenoids in kernels (α-amyrin and β-amyrin) have anti-inflammatory activities [68]. Terpenoids are credited as having the inhibitory potential of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) to reduce inflammation and counteract cancer [69]. Shea kernels contain triterpene acid, triterpene glycoside, steroid glucosides, and other phenolic compounds, as active principles. There are also positive aspects of extracting specific compounds from defatted shea kernels that could be used as antioxidants and anti-inflammatory agents [70]. An extract of the nutshells has been investigated as a potential source of medicines for treating diabetes, based on the presence of bioactive compounds including protocatechuic acid, trihydroxycoumarin, taxifolin, and quercetin. These chemicals have been investigated via the molecular docking method for high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) fingerprints and bioactivity evaluation [71]. According to the authors, nutshells could provide a source of cheap, natural antidiabetic compounds and are especially rich in (2R, 3R)-(+)-taxifolin, which would help to reduce waste of the currently discarded shells and increase the profitability of tree growing.
The fatty acid composition of triterpene alcohol fractions of the non-saponifiable lipids of shea tree kernels has also been studied. The dominant fatty acids are stearic (28–56%) and oleic (34–61%) acids. Triterpene contains a range of components: α-amyrin, β-amyrin, lupeol, and butyrospermol as the major constituents [70][54][57][72][73].
Secondary metabolites are present in the shea tree’s plant parts (leaves, bark, stems, roots, and fruits) [74]. The phytochemical analysis of leaves and bark extract of shea tree has revealed compounds, such as alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, steroids, phenols, phlobatannins, glycosides, and carbohydrates [75][53][76][77][78].

3. Importance of V. paradoxa in the Context of Agroforestry

The shea tree is considered one of the principal tree species primarily found in agroforestry parklands in sub-Saharan African countries, where the species occurs naturally [79]. It constitutes a high percentage of standing biomass, contributes to reducing soil degradation, and possesses a significant carbon sequestration ability, which can be used for climate change mitigation strategies [80][81][82][83]. The shea tree is the most common in Mali and has a relatively high density of 30–50 trees/ha [84].
Growing shea trees in agroforestry plantations impact the microclimate positively. Due to trees shading effects, there is an essential effect on the soil moisture content, leading to higher crop yields [85]. Some researchers have observed higher fruit yields in cultivated fields with shea trees compared with naturally fallow land. Cultivated fields with annual crops growing where shea trees were present provided better flowering conditions, fruiting, and better yields [3][86][87]. In Burkina Faso, 51% of agricultural land was identified as suitable for growing the species [88]. The cultivation of crops such as maize and soybean is being used to generate income and to enhance food security in shea tree parklands. The authors of a study carried out in Uganda suggest that different responses have been observed regarding soybean and maize yields [89]. Due to the competition for light and nutrients, intercropping with mature shea trees led to very low maize and soybean yields compared with intercropping with young shea trees. Another investigation has been carried out regarding the influence of the shea tree and P. biglobosa trees on sorghum production in Burkina Faso [89]. The authors found that sorghum yield was affected negatively by 50–70% with P. biglobosa. According to some studies, as shea trees age, there is a reduction in the yield of adjacent crops. The yield variability could be explained by the shading and competition for water and nutrients, but the cultivation of soybean in shea tree parklands is a possible recommendation as lower reduction in yields were reported compared with cereals [89][90][91].

References

  1. Epanda, M.; Tsafack, R.; Ngo-Nonga, F.; Frynta, D.; Adi, N.N.; Willie, J.; Speelman, S. Contribution of Non-Timber Forest Product Valorisation to the Livelihood Assets of Local People in the Northern Periphery of the Dja Faunal Reserve, East Cameroon. Forests 2020, 11, 1019.
  2. Leakey, R.R.B.; Tchoundjeu, Z.; Schreckenberg, K.; Shackleton, S.E.; Shackleton, C.M. Agroforestry Tree Products (AFTPs): Targeting Poverty Reduction and Enhanced Livelihoods. Int. J. Agric. Sustain. 2005, 3, 1–23.
  3. Aleza, K.; Villamor, G.B.; Nyarko, B.K.; Wala, K.; Akpagana, K. Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn C. F.) Fruit Yield Assessment and Management by Farm Households in the Atacora District of Benin. PLoS ONE 2018, 13, e0190234.
  4. Tena, G. Sequencing Forgotten Crops. Nat. Plants 2019, 5, 5.
  5. Hermans-Neumann, K.; Gerstner, K.; Geijzendorffer, I.R.; Herold, M.; Seppelt, R.; Wunder, S. Why Do Forest Products Become Less Available? A Pan-Tropical Comparison of Drivers of Forest-Resource Degradation. Environ. Res. Lett. 2016, 11, 125010.
  6. Asprilla-Perea, J.; Díaz-Puente, J.M. Importance of Wild Foods to Household Food Security in Tropical Forest Areas. Food Secur. 2019, 11, 15–22.
  7. Billong, P.E.; Afiong Nana, N.; Betti, J.L.; Farick Njimbam, O.; Tientcheu Womeni, S.; Ávila Martin, E.; Ros Brull, G.; Okale, R.; Fa, J.E.; Funk, S.M. Ethnobotanical Survey of Wild Edible Plants Used by Baka People in Southeastern Cameroon. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 2020, 16, 64.
  8. Dawson, I.K.; Leakey, R.; Clement, C.R.; Weber, J.C.; Cornelius, J.P.; Roshetko, J.M.; Vinceti, B.; Kalinganire, A.; Tchoundjeu, Z.; Masters, E.; et al. The Management of Tree Genetic Resources and the Livelihoods of Rural Communities in the Tropics: Non-Timber Forest Products, Smallholder Agroforestry Practices and Tree Commodity Crops. For. Ecol. Manag. 2014, 333, 9–21.
  9. Jamnadass, R.; Mumm, R.H.; Hale, I.; Hendre, P.; Muchugi, A.; Dawson, I.K.; Powell, W.; Graudal, L.; Yana-Shapiro, H.; Simons, A.J.; et al. Enhancing African Orphan Crops with Genomics. Nat. Genet. 2020, 52, 356–360.
  10. Noordwijk, M.V.; Coe, R.; Sinclair, F. Agroforestry Paradigms. In Sustainable Development through Trees on Farms: Agroforestry in Its Fifth Decade; Van Noordwijk, M., Ed.; World Agroforestry (ICRAF): Bogor, Indonesia, 2019; pp. 1–14.
  11. Vinceti, B.; Termote, C.; Ickowitz, A.; Powell, B.; Kehlenbeck, K.; Hunter, D. The Contribution of Forests and Trees to Sustainable Diets. Sustainability 2013, 5, 4797–4824.
  12. Dawson, I.K.; Lengkeek, A.; Weber, J.C.; Jamnadass, R. Managing Genetic Variation in Tropical Trees: Linking Knowledge with Action in Agroforestry Ecosystems for Improved Conservation and Enhanced Livelihoods. Biodivers. Conserv. 2009, 18, 969–986.
  13. Asaah, E.K.; Tchoundjeu, Z.; Leakey, R.R.B.; Takousting, B.; Njong, J. Trees, Agroforestry and Multifunctional Agriculture in Cameroon. Int. J. Agric. Sustain. 2011, 9, 110–119.
  14. Kindt, R.; Muchugi, A.; Hansen, O.; Kipruto, H.; Poole, J.; Dawson, I.; Jamnadass, R. Molecular Markers for Tropical Trees: Statistical Analysis of Dominant Data; ICRAF Technical Manual No. 13; World Agroforestry Centre: Nairobi, Kenya; Forest and Landscape Denmark: Frederiksberg, Denmark, 2009.
  15. Leakey, R.R.B. Towards a Domestication Strategy for Indigenous Fruit Trees in the Tropics. In Multifunctional Agriculture; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2017; pp. 165–176.
  16. Hendre, P.S.; Muthemba, S.; Kariba, R.; Muchugi, A.; Fu, Y.; Chang, Y.; Song, B.; Liu, H.; Liu, M.; Liao, X.; et al. African Orphan Crops Consortium (AOCC): Status of Developing Genomic Resources for African Orphan Crops. Planta 2019, 1, 989–1003.
  17. Tsobeng, A.; Akem, M.; Avana, M.L.; Muchugi, A.; Degrande, A.; Tchoundjeu, Z.; Jamnadass, R.; Na’a, F. Tree-to-Tree Variation in Fruits of Three Populations of Trichoscypha acuminata (Engl.) in Cameroon. Sci. Afr. 2020, 7, e00235.
  18. Sunil, K.; Liu, M.; Yssel, A.; Kariba, R.; Muthemba, S.; Jiang, S.; Song, B.; Hendre, P.S.; Muchugi, A.; Jamnadass, R.; et al. Draft Genomes of Two Artocarpus Plants, Jackfruit (A. heterophyllus) and Breadfruit (A. altilis). Genes 2020, 11, 27.
  19. Huang, J.; Liang, X.; Xuan, Y.; Geng, C.; Li, Y.; Lu, H.; Qu, S.; Mei, X.; Chen, H.; Yu, T.; et al. The Draft Genomes of Five Agriculturally Important African Orphan Crops. Gigascience 2017, 6, 1.
  20. Mabhaudhi, T.; Chimonyo, V.G.P.; Hlahla, S.; Massawe, F.; Mayes, S.; Nhamo, L.; Modi, A.T. Prospects of Orphan Crops in Climate Change. Planta 2019, 250, 695–708.
  21. Okullo, J.B.L.; Hall, J.B.; Obua, J. Leafing, Flowering and Fruiting of Vitellaria paradoxa Subsp. Nilotica in Savanna Parklands in Uganda. Agrofor. Syst. 2004, 60, 77–91.
  22. Byakagaba, P.; Eilu, G.; Okullo, J.B.L.; Tumwebaze, S.B.; Mwavu, E.N. Population Structure and Regeneration Status of Vitellaria paradoxa (C.F.Gaertn.) Under Different Land Management Regimes in Uganda. Agric. J. 2011, 6, 14–22.
  23. Aremu, M.O.; Andrew, C.; Salau, R.B.; Atolaiye, B.O.; Yebpella, G.G.; Enemali, M.O. Comparative Studies on the Lipid Profile of Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn.) Fruit Kernel and Pulp. J. Appl. Sci. 2019, 19, 480–486.
  24. Moore, S. The Role of Vitellaria paradoxa in Poverty Reduction and Food Security in the Upper East Region of Ghana. Earth Environ. 2008, 3, 209–245.
  25. Boffa, J. Opportunities and Challenges in the Improvement of the Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) Resource and Its Management; Report Submitted to the Global Shea Alliance; Occasional Paper 24; World Agroforestry: Nairobi, Kenya, 2015.
  26. Chen, T. Impact of the Shea Nut Industry on Women’s Empowerment in Burkina Faso; A Multi-Dimensional Study Focusing on the Central, Central-West and Hauts-Bassins regions; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO): Rome, Italy, 2017.
  27. Kadu, C.A.C.; Imbuga, M.; Jamnadass, R.; Dawson, I.K. Genetic Management of Indigenous Fruit Trees in Southern Africa: A Case Study of Sclerocarya birrea Based on Nuclear and Chloroplast Variation. S. Afr. J. Bot. 2006, 72, 421–427.
  28. Mkwezalamba, I.; Munthali, C.R.Y.; Missanjo, E. Phenotypic Variation in Fruit Morphology among Provenances of Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst. Int. J. For. Res. 2015, 2015, 735418.
  29. Sudrajat, D.J. Genetic Variation of Fruit, Seed, and Seedling Characteristics among 11 Populations of White Jabon in Indonesia. For. Sci. Technol. 2016, 12, 9–15.
  30. Oluoch, P.; Nyaboga, E.N.; Bargul, J.L. Analysis of Genetic Diversity of Passion Fruit (Passiflora edulis Sims) Genotypes Grown in Kenya by Sequence-Related Amplified Polymorphism (SRAP) Markers. Ann. Agrar. Sci. 2018, 16, 367–375.
  31. Teklehaimanot, Z. Exploiting the Potential of Indigenous Agroforestry Trees: Parkia biglobosa and Vitellaria paradoxa in Sub-Saharan Africa. Agrofor. Syst. 2004, 61–62, 207–220.
  32. Maranz, S.; Kpikpi, W.; Wiesman, Z.; De Saint Sauveur, A.; Chapagain, B. Nutritional Values and Indigenous Prefences for Shea Fruits (Vitellaria paradoxa C.V. Gaertn. F.) in African Agroforestry Parklands. Econ. Bot. 2004, 58, 588–600.
  33. Di Vincenzo, D.; Maranz, S.; Serraiocco, A.; Vito, R.; Wiesman, Z.; Bianchi, G. Regional Variation in Shea Butter Lipid and Triterpene Composition in Four African Countries. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2005, 53, 7473–7479.
  34. Alu, S.E.; Randa, E.A. Nutritional Value of Shea Butter (Vitellaria paradoxa) Seed Meal (SBSM) as Affected by Different Days of Natural Fermentation. Niger. Ann. PURE Appl. Sci. 2019, 1, 196–201.
  35. Muotono, P.; Maanikuu, I.; Peker, K. Medicinal and Nutritional Benefits from the Shea Tree-(Vitellaria paradoxa). J. Biol. Agric. Healthc. 2017, 7, 51–57.
  36. Raimi, M.; Adegoke, B.M.; Afolabi, O. Nutritional Composition of Seed and Physicochemical Properties of Seed Oil of Vitellaria paradoxa. Sci. Res. J. 2014, 2, 35–39.
  37. Aguzue, O.C.; Akanji, F.T.; Tafida, M.A.; Kamal, M. Nutritional and Some Elemental Composition of Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) Fruit Pulp. Arch. Appl. Sci. Res. 2013, 5, 63–65.
  38. Okullo, J.; Omujal, F.; Agea, J.; Vuzi, P.; Namutebi, A.; Okello, J.; Nyanzi, S. Proximate and Mineral Composition of Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn.) Fruit Pulp in Uganda. Afr. J. Food Agric. Nutr. Dev. 2010, 10, 4430–4443.
  39. Ugese, F.D.; Baiyeri, P.K.; Mbah, B.N. Nutritional Composition of Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) Fruit Pulp across Its Major Distribution Zones in Nigeria. Fruits 2008, 63, 163–170.
  40. Kadji, B.; Kone, F.; Sika, A.; Dabonne, S. Physico-Chemical Properties of Safou (Dacryodes edulis) Fruits Grown in Côte d’Ivoire. J. Appl. Biosci. 2016, 105, 10103.
  41. Kalinganire, A.; Weber, J.C.; Uwamariya, A.; Kone, B. Improving Rural Livelihoods through Domestication of Indigenous Fruit Trees in the Parklands of the Sahel. In Indigenous Fruit Trees in the Tropics: Domestication, Utillization and Commercialization; CABI Publishing: Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK, 2007; pp. 186–203.
  42. Ugese, F.; Baiyeri, K.; Mbah, B. Mineral Content of the Pulp of Shea Butter Fruit (Vitellaria paradoxa CF Gaertn.) Sourced from Seven Locations in the Savanna Ecology of Nigeria. Tree Sci. Biotechnol. 2008, 2, 40–42.
  43. Tom-Dery, D.; Eller, F.; Reisdorff, C.; Jensen, K. Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn.) at the Crossroads: Current Knowledge and Research Gaps. Agrofor. Syst. 2018, 92, 1353–1371.
  44. Busson, F. Plantes Alimentaires de l’Ouest Africain: Étude Botanique, Biologique et Chimique; Leconte, M., Ed.; L’Imprimerie Leconte: Marseille, France, 1965.
  45. Tallantire, A.; Goode, P. A Preliminary Study of the Food Plants of the West Nile and Madi Districts of Uganda. East Afr. Agric. For. J. 1975, 40, 233–255.
  46. Mbaiguinam, M.; Mbayhoudel, K.; Djekota, C. Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Fruits, Pulps, Kernels and Butter of Shea Butyrospermum parkii (Sapotaceae) from Mandoul, Southern Chad. Asian J. Biochem. 2007, 2, 101–110.
  47. Honfo, F.G.; Akissoe, N.; Linnemann, A.R.; Soumanou, M.; Van Boekel, M.A.J.S. Nutritional Composition of Shea Products and Chemical Properties of Shea Butter: A Review. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2014, 54, 673–686.
  48. Greenwood, M. Shea Nuts and Shea Butter; Bulletin of the Agricultural Department: Lagos, Nigeria, 1929; pp. 59–100.
  49. Megnanou, R.-M.; Niamke, S.; Diopoh, J. Physicochemical and Microbiological Characteristics of Optimized and Traditional Shea Butters from Côte d’Ivoire. Afr. J. Biochem. Res. 2007, 1, 041–047.
  50. Chukwu, O.; Adgidzi, P.P. Evaluation of Some Physico-Chemical Properties of Shea-Butter (Butyrospermum paradoxum) Related to Its Value for Food and Industrial Utilisation. Int. J. Postharvest Technol. Innov. 2008, 1, 320–326.
  51. Honfo, F.G.; Hell, K.; Akissoé, N.; Coulibaly, O.; Fandohan, P.; Hounhouigan, J. Effect of Storage Conditions on Microbiological and Physicochemical Quality of Shea Butter. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2011, 48, 274–279.
  52. Duke, J.A.; Atchley, A.A. Handbook of Proximate Analysis Tables of Higher Plants; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2018.
  53. Maranz, S.; Wiesman, Z.; Garti, N. Phenolic Constituents of Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) Kernels. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2003, 51, 6268–6273.
  54. Akihisa, T.; Kojima, N.; Katoh, N.; Ichimura, Y.; Suzuki, H.; Fukatsu, M.; Maranz, S.; Masters, E.T. Triterpene Alcohol and Fatty Acid Composition of Shea Nuts from Seven African Countries. J. Oleo Sci. 2010, 59, 351–360.
  55. Tano-Debrah, K.; Ohta, Y. Enzyme-Assisted Aqueous Extraction of Fat from Kernels of the Shea Tree, Butyrospermum parkii. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 1994, 71, 979–983.
  56. Alhassan, E.; Agbemava, S.E.; Adoo, N.A.; Agbodemegbe, V.Y.; Bansah, C.Y.; Della, R.; Appiah, G.I.; Kombat, E.O.; Nyarko, B.J.B. Determination of Trace Elements in Ghanaian Shea Butter and Shea Nut by Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA). Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. 2011, 3, 22–25.
  57. Akihisa, T.; Kojima, N.; Kikuchi, T.; Yasukawa, K.; Tokuda, H.; Masters, E.T.; Manosroi, A.; Manosroi, J. Anti-Inflammatory and Chemopreventive Effects of Triterpene Cinnamates and Acetates from Shea Fat. J. Oleo Sci. 2010, 59, 273–280.
  58. Dijkstra, A. Palm Oil. In Encyclopedia of Food and Health; Elsevier Inc.: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2015; pp. 199–204.
  59. Megnanou, R.; Niamke, S. Improving the Optimized Shea Butter Quality: A Great Potential of Utilization for Common Consumers and Industrials. SpringerPlus 2015, 4, 667.
  60. Njoku, O.U.; Eneh, F.U.; Ononogbu, I.C.; Adikwu, M.U. Compositional and Toxicological Studies on Shea Butter. J. Nutraceuticals Funct. Med. Foods. 2000, 2, 33–39.
  61. Nkouam, G.B.; Kapseu, C.; Barth, D.; Dirand, M.; Tchatchueng, J.B. Oil Extraction from Sheanut Kernel (Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn) and Canarium Pulp (Canarium schweinfurthii Engl.) Using Supercritical Co 2. Res. J. Appl. Sci. 2007, 2, 646–652.
  62. Badifu, G.I.O. Lipid Composition of Nigerian Butyrospermum paradoxum Kernel. J. Food Compos. Anal. 1989, 2, 238–244.
  63. Ugese, F.D. Proximate traits of the seed and seed cake of shea buttertree (Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn.) in Nigeria’s savanna ecozone. J. Appl. Biosci. 2010, 31, 1935–1941.
  64. Maranz, S.; Wiesman, Z.; Bisgaard, J.; Bianchi, G. Germplasm Resources of Vitellaria paradoxa Based on Variations in Fat Composition across the Species Distribution Range. Agrofor. Syst. 2004, 60, 71–76.
  65. Honfo, F.G. Quality of Traditionally Processed Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) Kernels and Shea Butter; Wageningen University: Wageningen, The Netherland, 2015.
  66. Kapseu, C.; Nono, Y.; Parmentier, M.; Dirand, M.; Dellacherie, D. Fatty Acids and Triglycerides of Cameroon Shea Butter. Riv. Ital. Sostanze Grasse 2001, 78, 31–34.
  67. Muoghalu, G.U.; Akah, P.A.; Okoye, T.C.; Ezenyi, I.C.; Ibeneme, S.; Okoli, C.O. Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Fatty Extract of Vitalleria Paradoxa Kernel (Shea Butter) and Pattern of Its Clinical Use in Arthritis in Enugu, South East Nigeria. Int. J. Basic Clin. Pharmacol. 2016, 5, 2345–2351.
  68. Okoye, N.N.; Ajaghaku, D.L.; Okeke, H.N.; Ilodigwe, E.E.; Nworu, C.S.; Okoye, F.B.C. Beta-Amyrin and Alpha-Amyrin Acetate Isolated from the Stem Bark of Alstonia Boonei Display Profound Anti-Inflammatory Activity. Pharm. Biol. 2014, 52, 1478–1486.
  69. Salminen, A.; Lehtonen, M.; Suuronen, T.; Kaarniranta, K.; Huuskonen, J. Terpenoids: Natural Inhibitors of NF-ΚB Signaling with Anti-Inflammatory and Anticancer Potential. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 2008, 65, 2979–2999.
  70. Zhang, J.; Kurita, M.; Shinozaki, T.; Ukiya, M.; Yasukawa, K.; Shimizu, N.; Tokuda, H.; Masters, E.T.; Akihisa, M.; Akihisa, T. Triterpene Glycosides and Other Polar Constituents of Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) Kernels and Their Bioactivities. Phytochemistry 2014, 108, 157–170.
  71. Li, D.; Xiao, J.; Liu, W.; Zhang, C.; Akihisa, T.; Abe, M.; Masters, E.; Zhai, W.; Feng, F.; Zhang, J. Vitellaria paradoxa Nutshells from Seven Sub-Saharan Countries as Potential Herbal Medicines for Treating Diabetes Based on Chemical Compositions, HPLC Fingerprints and Bioactivity Evaluation. Chin. J. Nat. Med. 2019, 17, 446–460.
  72. Zhang, J.; Kurita, M.; Ebina, K.; Ukiya, M.; Tokuda, H.; Yasukawa, K.; Masters, E.T.; Shimizu, N.; Akihisa, M.; Feng, F.; et al. Melanogenesis-Inhibitory Activity and Cancer Chemopreventive Effect of Glucosylcucurbic Acid from Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) Kernels. Chem. Biodivers. 2015, 12, 547–558.
  73. Zhang, J.; Li, D.; Lv, Q.; Ye, F.; Jing, X.; Masters, E.T.; Shimizu, N.; Abe, M.; Akihisa, T.; Feng, F. Compositions and Melanogenesis-Inhibitory Activities of the Extracts of Defatted Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) Kernels from Seven African Countries. J. Food Compos. Anal. 2018, 70, 89–97.
  74. Talla, E.; Nyemb, J.; Tiabou, A.; Djou, S.; Biyanzi, P.; Sophie, L.; Elst, L.; Tanyi, J. Antioxidant Activity and a New Ursane-Type Triterpene from Vitellaria paradoxa (Sapotaceae) Stem Barks. Eur. J. Med. Plants 2016, 16, 1–20.
  75. Maranz, S.; Wiesman, Z. Influence of Climate on the Tocopherol Content of Shea Butter. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2004, 52, 2934–2937.
  76. Falana, M.B.; Bankole, M.O.; Ojo, D.A.; Omemu, A.M. Comparative Phytochemical Investigation of the Various Parts of Vitellaria paradoxa. J. Nat. Sci. Res. 2016, 6, 74–80.
  77. Boyejo, I.; Azeez, S.; Owolabi, A.; Issah, O. Antifungal and Phytochemical Screening of Extract from Vitellaria paradoxa (Shea Butter Tree) Leaves, Barks and Roots on Dermatophytes. Int. J. Sci. Res. Publ. 2019, 9, p90129.
  78. Estella, U.; Victoria, O. Pharmacognostic Profiling and Antidiabetic Effects of Leaves of Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn (Sapotaceae). J. Glob. Biosci. 2020, 9, 7280–7306.
  79. Aleza, K.; Wala, K.; Bayala, J.; Villamor, G.B.; Dourma, M.; Atakpama, W.; Akpagana, K. Population Structure and Regeneration Status of Vitellaria paradoxa (C.F. Gaertner) under Different Land Management Regimes in Atacora Department, Benin. Agrofor. Syst. 2015, 89, 511–523.
  80. Bayala, J.; Ouédraogo, S.J.; Ong, C.K. Early Growth Performance and Water Use of Planted West African Provenances of Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn (Karité) in Gonsé, Burkina Faso. Agrofor. Syst. 2009, 75, 117–127.
  81. Luedeling, E.; Neufeldt, H. Carbon Sequestration Potential of Parkland Agroforestry in the Sahel. Clim. Chang. 2012, 115, 443–461.
  82. Sanogo, K.; Gebrekirstos, A.; Bayala, J.; Villamor, G.B.; Kalinganire, A.; Dodiomon, S. Potential of Dendrochronology in Assessing Carbon Sequestration Rates of Vitellaria paradoxa in Southern Mali, West Africa. Dendrochronologia 2016, 40, 26–35.
  83. Dimobe, K.; Kuyah, S.; Dabré, Z.; Ouédraogo, A.; Thiombiano, A. Diversity-Carbon Stock Relationship across Vegetation Types in W National Park in Burkina Faso. For. Ecol. Manag. 2019, 438, 243–254.
  84. Sanou, H.; Picard, N.; Lovett, P.N.; Dembélé, M.; Korbo, A.; Diarisso, D.; Bouvet, J.M. Phenotypic Variation of Agromorphological Traits of the Shea Tree, Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn., in Mali. Genet. Resour. Crop Evol. 2006, 53, 145–161.
  85. Baziari, F.; Henquinet, K.B.; Cavaleri, M.A. Understanding Farmers’ Perceptions and the Effects of Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) Tree Distribution in Agroforestry Parklands of Upper West Region, Ghana. Agrofor. Syst. 2019, 93, 557–570.
  86. Kelly, B.A.; Gourlet-Fleury, S.; Bouvet, J.M. Impact of Agroforestry Practices on the Flowering Phenology of Vitellaria paradoxa in Parklands in Southern Mali. Agrofor. Syst. 2007, 71, 67–75.
  87. Kelly, B.A.; Poudyal, M.; Bouvet, J.-M. Impact of Land Use and Land Use History on Fruits Production of Vitellaria paradoxa (Shea Tree) According to Agroclimatic Zones in Mali (West Africa). Curr. Bot. 2019, 10, 1–7.
  88. Nyamekye, C.; Thiel, M.; Schönbrodt-Stitt, S.; Zoungrana, B.; Amekudzi, L. Soil and Water Conservation in Burkina Faso, West Africa. Sustainability 2018, 10, 3182.
  89. Ogwok, G.; Alele, P.O.; Kizza, S. Influence of Shea Tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) on Maize and Soybean Production. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0201329.
  90. Gwali, S.; Okullo, J.B.L.; Eilu, G.; Nakabonge, G.; Nyeko, P.; Vuzi, P. Traditional Management and Conservation of Shea Trees (Vitellaria paradoxa Subspecies Nilotica) in Uganda. Environ. Dev. Sustain. 2012, 14, 347–363.
  91. Bazié, H.R.; Bayala, J.; Zombré, G.; Sanou, J.; Ilstedt, U. Separating Competition-Related Factors Limiting Crop Performance in an Agroforestry Parkland System in Burkina Faso. Agrofor. Syst. 2012, 84, 377–388.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Agriculture, Dairy & Animal Science; Environmental Sciences
Contributor MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Choungo Nguekeng Patrick Bustrel
View Times: 1.1K
Entry Collection: Environmental Sciences
Revisions: 3 times (View History)
Update Date: 20 Dec 2021
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    Video Production Service
    Feedback