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When it comes to eating and drinking, multiple factors from diverse sensory modalities have been shown to influence multisensory flavour perception and liking. These factors have heretofore been strictly divided into either those that are intrinsic to the food itself (e.g., food colour, aroma, texture), or those that are extrinsic to it (e.g., related to the packaging, receptacle or external environment).
Study |
Sense |
Intrinsic or Extrinsic |
Sweet Enhancing Stimuli |
Control/Comparison Stimuli |
Taste Stimuli |
Scale |
% Difference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Crisinel et al. (2012) [7] |
Hearing |
Extrinsic |
Sweet soundtrack |
Bitter soundtrack |
Cinder toffee |
1–9 rating (bitter–sweet) |
15% |
Höchenberger et al. (2018) [21] |
Hearing |
Extrinsic |
Sweet soundtrack |
Bitter soundtrack |
Toffee |
0–100 rating (bitter–sweet) |
8% |
Höchenberger et al. (2018) [21] |
Hearing |
Extrinsic |
Sweet soundtrack |
Bitter soundtrack |
Toffee |
0–100 rating (sweet, bitter, salt, sour) |
No significant difference |
Reinoso Carvalho et al. (2016) [9] |
Hearing |
Extrinsic |
Sweet soundtrack |
Bitter soundtrack |
Belgian beer |
1–7 rating sweetness |
20% |
Reinoso Carvalho et al. (2016) [9] |
Hearing |
Extrinsic |
Sweet soundtrack |
Sour soundtrack |
Belgian beer |
1–7 rating sweetness |
20% |
Reinoso Carvalho et al. (2017) [22] |
Hearing |
Extrinsic |
Legato soundtrack |
Staccato soundtrack |
Dark chocolate |
1–7 rating sweetness |
11% |
Wang and Spence, (2016) [23] |
Hearing |
Extrinsic |
Consonant soundtrack |
Dissonant soundtrack |
Fruit juice (apple, orange, grapefruit) |
1–10 rating (sour–sweet) |
19% |
Wang and Spence (2017) [24] |
Hearing |
Extrinsic |
Consonant soundtrack |
Dissonant soundtrack |
Fruit juice (apple, orange, grapefruit) |
0–10 rating (sour–sweet) |
17% |
Wang and Spence, (2017) [25] |
Hearing |
Extrinsic |
Sweet soundtrack |
Sour soundtrack |
Off-dry white wine |
0–10 rating sweetness |
19% |
Wang et al. (2019) [26] |
Hearing |
Extrinsic |
Sweet soundtrack |
Bitter soundtrack |
Apple elderflower juice |
1–9 rating sweetness |
8% |
Carvalho and Spence (2019) [27] |
Sight |
Extrinsic |
Pink coffee cup |
White coffee cup |
Espresso |
0–10 rating (sweetness) |
30% |
Clydesdale et al. (1992) [28] |
Sight |
Intrinsic |
More red colouring |
Less red colouring |
Dry beverage base and sugar solution |
1–7 rating sweetness |
14% |
Fairhurst et al. (2015) [29] |
Sight |
Both |
Round plate and round food presentation |
Angular plate and angular food presentation |
Beetroot salad |
0–10 rating sweetness |
17% |
Frank et al. (1989) [30] |
Sight |
Intrinsic |
Red colouring |
No colour |
Sucrose solution |
Rating sweetness |
No effect |
Hidaka and Shimoda (2014) [31] |
Sight |
Intrinsic |
Pink solution |
No colouring |
Sucrose solution 4% and 6% |
10 cm visual analogue scale (VAS) less–sweeter |
40% |
Johnson and Clydesdale (1982) [32] |
Sight |
Intrinsic |
Darker red coloured solution |
Lighter red reference solution |
Sucrose solutions 2.7–5.3% |
Magnitude estimation sweetness |
2–10% |
Lavin and Lawless (1998) [33] |
Sight |
Intrinsic |
Darker red solution |
Lighter red solution |
Fruit beverage + aspartame to 9% sucrose level |
1–9 category scale sweetness |
10% |
Lavin and Lawless (1998) [33] |
Sight |
Intrinsic |
Lighter green solution |
Darker green solution |
Fruit beverage + aspartame to 9% sucrose level |
1–9 category scale sweetness |
8% |
Maga (1974) [34] |
Sight |
Intrinsic |
Red colouring |
Green, yellow, uncoloured solutions |
Sucrose solution |
Recognition threshold |
No effect |
Pangborn and Hansen (1963) [35] |
Sight |
Intrinsic |
Red solution |
Green, yellow, uncoloured solutions |
Pear nectar |
Rating sweetness |
No effect |
Pangborn et al. (1963) [36] |
Sight |
Intrinsic |
Pink colouring |
Yellow, brown, light red, dark red colouring |
White wine |
Rating sweetness |
Rose sweetest |
Pangborn (1960) [37] |
Sight |
Intrinsic |
Red colouring |
Green, yellow, uncoloured solutions |
Sucrose solution |
2-AFC (alternative forced choice) which one sweeter |
No effect |
Pangborn (1960) [37] |
Sight |
Intrinsic |
Red colouring |
Green, yellow, uncoloured solutions |
Pear nectar |
2-AFC which one sweeter |
No effect |
Piqueras–Fiszman et al. (2012) [8] |
Sight |
Extrinsic |
White plate |
Black plate |
Strawberry mousse |
10 cm sweetness scale |
15% |
Stewart and Goss (2013) [38] |
Sight |
Extrinsic |
White plate |
Black plate |
Cheesecake |
10 cm sweetness scale |
28% |
Wang and Spence (2017) [24] |
Sight |
Extrinsic |
Image of happy child |
Image of sad child |
Fruit juice (apple, orange, grapefruit) |
0–10 rating (sour–sweet) |
20% |
Wang et al. (2017) [39] |
Sight |
Intrinsic |
Round shape |
Angular shape |
Dark chocolate |
1–9 rating expected sweetness |
30% |
Dalton et al. (2000) [40] |
Smell |
Extrinsic (Orthonasal) |
Benzaldehyde odour (cherry almond aroma) |
No odour |
Saccharin solution |
Threshold test |
29% increase in benzaldehyde threshold in benz + saccharin condition |
Delwiche and Heffelfinger (2005) [41] |
Smell |
Intrinsic (Retronasal) |
Pineapple odour, high concentration |
Pineapple odour, lower concentration |
Aspartame/acesulfame potassium solution |
2-AFC threshold detection |
Additive taste-odour |
Frank and Byram (1988) [42] |
Smell |
Intrinsic (Retronasal) |
Strawberry odour |
No odour |
Sweetened whipped cream |
0–20 rating sweetness |
13% at 0.6 M and 1.2 M; 40% at 0.25 M |
Frank et al., 1989 [30] |
Smell |
Intrinsic (Retronasal) |
Strawberry odour |
No odour |
Sucrose solution |
0–20 rating sweetness |
~18% at 0.3 M, 7% at 0.5 M concentration |
Schifferstein and Verlegh (1996) [43] |
Smell |
Intrinsic (Retronasal) |
Strawberry odour, lemon odour |
No odour |
Sucrose solution |
150 mm sweetness scale |
25% |
Wang et al. (2019) [26] |
Smell |
Intrinsic |
Pomegranate aroma |
No added aroma |
Apple elderflower juice |
1–9 rating sweetness |
5% |
Biggs et al. (2016) [44] |
Touch |
Extrinsic |
Rough plate |
Smooth plate |
Biscuits |
How did the biscuits taste? |
Biscuits in smooth plate 3 times more likely to be rated as sweet compared to those in rough plate |
van Rompay et al. (2016) [45] |
Touch |
Extrinsic |
Rounded cup surface pattern |
Angular cup surface pattern |
Hot coffee and chocolate |
1–7 rating sweetness |
20% |
Wang and Spence (2018) [46] |
Touch |
Extrinsic |
Velvet swatch |
Sandpaper swatch |
Off-dry white wine (10 g/L) |
1–9 rating sweetness |
13% |
Wang and Spence (2018) [46] |
Touch |
Extrinsic |
Velvet swatch |
Sandpaper swatch |
Fortified red dessert wine (110 g/L) |
1–7 rating sweetness |
14% |