Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Chanakan Prom-u-thai
 + 1146 word(s) 1146 2021-06-03 10:04:25 |
2 update layout and reference
Rita Xu
 Meta information modification 1146 2021-06-17 08:50:03 | |
3 format correct
Catherine Yang
 Meta information modification 1146 2021-09-30 03:24:19 |

Video Upload Options

Do you have a full video?
Send video materials Upload full video

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Prom-U-Thai, C. High-Anthocyanin Purple Rice. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/10943 (accessed on 18 April 2024).
Prom-U-Thai C. High-Anthocyanin Purple Rice. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/10943. Accessed April 18, 2024.
Prom-U-Thai, Chanakan. "High-Anthocyanin Purple Rice" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/10943 (accessed April 18, 2024).
Prom-U-Thai, C. (2021, June 17). High-Anthocyanin Purple Rice. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/10943
Prom-U-Thai, Chanakan. "High-Anthocyanin Purple Rice." Encyclopedia. Web. 17 June, 2021.
High-Anthocyanin Purple Rice
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/antiox10060833

Purple rice is recognized as a source of natural anthocyanin compounds among health-conscious consumers who employ rice as their staple food. Anthocyanin is one of the major antioxidant compounds that protect against the reactive oxygen species (ROS) that cause cellular damage in plants and animals, including humans.

black rice pigmented rice rice anthocyanin rice antioxidant

1. Introduction

Anthocyanins have been demonstrated to reduce the risks of serious diseases such as cancer and obesity, and the compounds have antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and anti-skin aging effects [1][2][3][4][5][6]. In plants, although their function is not completely understood, the major role of anthocyanins has been reported as protecting against free radicals during physiological metabolism; in particular, anthocyanin can alleviate cell damage when plants are grown under biotic and abiotic stresses [7]. Therefore, consumption of naturally synthesized anthocyanin from plants for the benefit of human health can help reduce the risk of several major diseases.
Rice is one of the world’s major staple food crops, consumed by more than half of the world’s population along with crops such as wheat, maize, and potato; over 90% of the rice production areas and consumption amounts are recorded in Asia [8][9]. At least 175 countries and territories consume rice; the overall consumption is high in the rice-consuming countries, ranging from 100 to 200 kg of paddy rice per person per year according to the FAO. This could be one of the reasons why many international programs aimed at boosting human nutrition, e.g., the harvest plus biofortification with high zinc, iron, iodine, and selenium, are focused on rice crops [10]. Moreover, it is interesting to observe that among the staple food crops, rice is recognized as potentially containing high amounts of antioxidant compounds such as anthocyanin, especially in pigmented rice varieties with black (purple) and red pericarp color [11] (Figure 1). The purple rice is highly valued, particularly among the health-conscious consumers as a functional compound for human health among everyday sources of carbohydrate [12]. In other staple food crops, anthocyanin has been reported in purple maize, a variety that is rarely consumed in comparison with other non-staple food crops such as Brassica, Solanaceous species, and some edible flowers [13][14][15][16]. Additionally, anthocyanin can be directly taken from the concentrate in capsules for convenience, but this can be quite expensive [17][18]. Therefore, purple rice is an advantageous option for anthocyanin intake, especially when dealing with a large number of rice consumers worldwide.
Antioxidants 10 00833 g001 550
Figure 1. Characteristic rice kernels with non-pericarp color (BB 3 CMU), purple (KJ CMU 107) and red (YMCB 3 CMU) pericarp color.
The anthocyanin-rich rice grains have been recognized as excellent sources of natural and safe food colorants [19][20][21]. Synthetic colorants can be harmful to humans and the environment via allergic and toxic reactions [22]; this can raise the demand for naturally pigmented rice such as purple rice that contains high concentrations of anthocyanin. Thus, purple rice not only provides enough anthocyanin to fulfill the growing interest but also can increase the value of rice products. There are numerous rice varieties containing anthocyanins, but only some are accepted as commercial varieties due to yield potential, cooking quality, and other functional properties that may be less acceptable.

2. Purple Rice’s Market and Trend

Rice is the dominant cereal and staple food in many countries. Whilst non-pigmented rice (no pericarp color) is widely consumed throughout the world, pigmented rice varieties, e.g., purple rice, are also gaining interest in many regions. Purple rice is traditionally cultivated in Asian countries such as China, Japan, Korea, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal [23][24][25][26] as well as in other regions and countries including Brazil [27] In Asian regions, it has been established as a component of the traditional pharmacopoeia [28]. For example, traditional medicine in China uses pigmented rice to prevent anemia and to improve blood circulation, kidney function, and eyesight [29], while black porridge rice is given to aid recovery of broken bones [23]. Recently, Asian purple rice has attracted attention in the international rice market; at the same time, some new pigmented rice varieties have been bred and adapted to cultivation in other countries such as Italy, France, Russia, and Australia [30][31][32][33]. These events confirm that the worldwide demand for pigmented rice is increasing. Although Thai purple rice is currently produced on a very small scale compared with white rice, the export demand is expanding in various international markets. In fact, the export quantity has been fairly stable during 2017 to 2020, with an average of 11,762 tons annually, but the economic value has increased from 1423 to 1805 USD/MT according to the OAE (Figure 2a,b). Meanwhile, a higher market price trend for purple rice has been observed compared to other rice types including the premium fragrant rice type (Hom Mali rice) (Figure 2c) (computed from data in OAE, 2020) [34]. Additionally, the high value of purple rice has been largely provided by the online market, where the highest price for purple rice was recorded, especially organically produced rice with no chemical pesticides used (Siam Rice Export Company). Thus, the market trend for purple rice is heading in a good direction, especially when the production process can be precisely and safely controlled.
Antioxidants 10 00833 g002 550
Figure 2. Thailand’s export quantity (a) and price (b) of pigmented rice and the average price of selected rice types (c) during 2017 to 2020. Source: drawn using data from OAE 2021.
According to the increasing of demand for purple rice, meeting a quality standard has become necessary before exportation (Table 1) [35]. Purple rice typically has an intrinsic color from deep purple to black; the appearance and uniformity of the color are used to initially classify the quality grade (by eye) between the two different groups of endosperm type: non-glutinous and glutinous endosperm. This is because the non-glutinous purple rice is often required to have a higher standard level due to the greater demand compared with the glutinous purple rice. Although, regarding quality grade, there is currently not a significant gap indicating the difference in domestic market price, quality involves attractiveness as judged by customers. The color segregation is controlled by many factors during cultivation such as sunlight (quality and duration), day and night temperature, moisture content, rainfall, water conditions, and nutrient availability in the soil [36][37][38]. The shade and color uniformity of purple rice provide opportunities for competitive products in the health food market. However, unlike the common white rice, the price of quality grade purple rice for export has not been officially provided; discussing the reasonable value can encourage farmers and entrepreneurs to produce rice and rice products that reach maximum quality. Deeper studies of selection of rice varieties, practical management, and processing have implications on quantity and quality of purple rice, and this should be considered when the consumer’s interest is considered.
Table 1. Thailand’s export quality standard specifications for pigmented rice.
Grade Entirely Dark or Almost Entirely Dark Kernels (%) Allowed Off Color Kernels (%) Other Color Kernels (%) Other Type Kernels (%) Size of Head Rice (Part) (mm)
Non-glutinous rice          
Prime quality ≥80 ≤20 ≤4.0 ≤1.0 ≥7
Superb quality ≥65 ≤35 ≤4.0 ≤1.0 ≥7
Glutinous rice          
Best quality ≥30 ≤70 ≤6 ≤1.0 ≥6.5
Standard quality ≥15–<30 >70–≤ 85 ≤6 ≤1.0 ≥6.5

Source: DFT, 2019.

References

  1. Wongwichai, T.; Teeyakasem, P.; Pruksakorn, D.; Kongtawelert, P.; Pothacharoen, P. Anthocyanins and metabolites from purple rice inhibit IL-1β-induced matrix metalloproteinases expression in human articular chondrocytes through the NF-κB and ERK/MAPK pathway. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2019, 112, 108610.
  2. Fakhar, Z.; Faramarzi, B.; Pacifico, S.; Faramarzi, S. Anthocyanin derivatives as potent inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 main protease: An in-silico perspective of therapeutic targets against COVID-19 pandemic. J. Biomol. Struct. Dyn. 2020, 1–13.
  3. Khalifa, I.; Nawaz, A.; Sobhy, R.; Althwab, S.A.; Barakat, H. Polyacylated anthocyanins constructively network with catalytic dyad residues of 3CLpro of 2019-nCoV than monomeric anthocyanins: A structural-relationship activity study with 10 anthocyanins using in-silico approaches. J. Mol. Graph. 2020, 100, 107690.
  4. Kongthitilerd, P.; Suantawee, T.; Cheng, H.; Thilavech, T.; Marnpae, M.; Adisakwattana, S. Anthocyanin-enriched riceberry rice extract inhibits cell proliferation and adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes by downregulating adipogenic transcription factors and their targeting genes. Nutrients 2020, 12, 2480.
  5. Palungwachira, P.; Tancharoen, S.; Dararat, P.; Nararatwanchai, T. Anthocyanins isolated from Oryza Sativa L. protect dermal fibroblasts from hydrogen peroxide-induced cell death. J. Nat. Sci. Biol. Med. 2020, 11, 45.
  6. Zhou, J.; Zhu, Y.F.; Chen, X.Y.; Han, B.; Li, F.; Chen, J.Y.; Peng, X.L.; Luo, L.P.; Chen, W.; Yu, X.P. Black rice-derived anthocyanins inhibit HER-2-positive breast cancer epithelial-mesenchymal transition-mediated metastasis in vitro by suppressing FAK signaling. Int. J. Mol. Med. 2017, 40, 1649–1656.
  7. Landi, M.; Tattini, M.; Gould, K.S. Multiple functional roles of anthocyanins in plant-environment interactions. Environ. Exp. Bot. 2015, 119, 4–17.
  8. FAO. 1995. Food and People. Staple Foods: What do People Eat? Available online: (accessed on 13 January 2020).
  9. Fairhurst, T.; Dobermann, A. Rice in the Global Food Supply. Better Crops Int. 2002, 16, 3–6.
  10. Prom-u-thai, C.; Rashid, A.; Ram, H.; Zou, C.; Guilherme, L.R.G.; Corguinha, A.P.B.; Guo, S.; Kaur, C.; Naeem, A.; Yamuangmorn, S.; et al. Simultaneous biofortification of rice with zinc, iodine, iron and selenium through foliar treatment of a micronutrient cocktail in five countries. Front. Plant Sci. 2020, 11, 589835.
  11. Ghasemzadeh, A.; Karbalaii, M.T.; Jaafar, H.Z.E.; Rahmat, A. Phytochemical constituents, antioxidant activity, and antiproliferative properties of black, red, and brown rice bran. Chem. Cent. J. 2018, 12, 17.
  12. Veni, B.K. Nutrition profiles of different colored rice: A review. J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. 2019, SP2, 303–305.
  13. Liu, Y.; Tikunov, Y.; Schouten, R.E.; Marcelis, L.F.M.; Visser, R.G.F.; Bovy, A. Anthocyanin biosynthesis and degradation mechanisms in solanaceous vegetables: A Review. Front. Chem. 2018, 6, 52.
  14. Magaña Cerino, J.M.; Peniche, H.; Tiessen, A.; Díaz, C. Pigmented maize (Zea mays L.) contains anthocyanins with potential therapeutic action against oxidative stress—A Review. Pol. J. Food Nutr. Sci. 2020, 70, 85–99.
  15. Pozos, G.; Ruiz, M.; Zamora-Natera, J.; Moya, C.; Ramírez, L.; Reynoso Silva, M.; Macías, R.; Garcia, P.; González-Cruz, R.; Pérez, E.; et al. Antioxidant capacity and antigenotoxic effect of Hibiscus sabdariffa L. extracts obtained with ultrasound-assisted extraction process. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 560.
  16. Song, B.; Xu, H.; Chen, L.; Fan, X.; Jing, Z.; Chen, S.; Xu, Z. Study of the relationship between leaf color formation and anthocyanin metabolism among different purple Pakchoi lines. Molecules 2020, 25, 4809.
  17. Norkaew, O.; Thitisut, P.; Mahatheeranont, S.; Pawin, B.; Sookwong, P.; Yodpitak, S.; Lungkaphin, A. Effect of wall materials on some physicochemical properties and release characteristics of encapsulated black rice anthocyanin microcapsules. Food Chem. 2019, 294, 493–502.
  18. Kanha, N.; Regenstein, J.M.; Surawang, S.; Pitchakarn, P.; Laokuldilok, T. Properties and kinetics of the in vitro release of anthocyanin-rich microcapsules produced through spray and freeze-drying complex coacervated double emulsions. Food Chem. 2021, 340, 127950.
  19. Anuyahong, T.; Chusak, C.; Adisakwattana, S. Incorporation of anthocyanin-rich riceberry rice in yogurts: Effect on physicochemical properties, antioxidant activity and in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. LWT 2020, 129, 109571.
  20. Papillo, V.A.; Locatelli, M.; Travaglia, F.; Bordiga, M.; Garino, C.; Arlorio, M.; Coïsson, J.D. Spray-dried polyphenolic extract from Italian black rice (Oryza sativa L., var. Artemide) as new ingredient for bakery products. Food Chem. 2018, 269, 603–609.
  21. Yi, J.; Qiu, M.; Liu, N.; Tian, L.; Zhu, X.; Decker, E.A.; McClements, D.J. Inhibition of lipid and protein oxidation in whey-protein-stabilized emulsions using a natural antioxidant: Black rice anthocyanins. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2020, 68, 10149–10156.
  22. Okafor, S.; Obonga, W.; Ezeokonkwo, M. Assessment of the health implications of synthetic and natural food Colourants—A Critical Review. UK J. Pharm. Biosci. 2016, 4, 1.
  23. Chaudhary, R. Speciality rices of the world: Effect of WTO and IPR on its production trend and marketing. J. Food Agric. Environ. 2003, 1, 34–41.
  24. Pal, S.; Bagchi, T.B.; Dhali, K.; Kar, A.; Sanghamitra, P.; Sarkar, S.; Samaddar, M.; Majumder, J. Evaluation of sensory, physicochemical properties and consumer preference of black rice and their products. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2019, 56, 1484–1494.
  25. Sholikhah, U.; Parjanto, P.; Handoyo, T.; Yunus, A. Genetic diversity of black and aromatic rice cultivar (Oryza sativa L.) from various regions in Indonesia using random amplified polymorphic DNA markers (RAPD). Int. J. Adv. Sci. Eng. Inf. Technol. 2019, 9, 1046–1051.
  26. Rahmawati, A.; Yuniastuti, E.; Nandariyah. Increased anthocyanin content in seven furrows of Cempo Ireng black rice with mutation induction. IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2020, 466, 012010.
  27. Dittgen, C.L.; Hoffmann, J.F.; Chaves, F.C.; Rombaldi, C.V.; Filho, J.M.C.; Vanier, N.L. Discrimination of genotype and geographical origin of black rice grown in Brazil by LC-MS analysis of phenolics. Food Chem. 2019, 288, 297–305.
  28. Appa Rao, S.; Schiller, J.M.; Bounphanousay, C.; Inthapanya, P.; Jackson, M.T. The colored pericarp (black) rice of Laos. In Rice in Laos; Schiller, J.M., Chanphengxay, M.B., Linquist, B., Appa Rao, S., Eds.; International Rice Research Institute: Los Baños, Philippines, 2006; pp. 175–186.
  29. Deng, G.F.; Xu, X.R.; Zhang, Y.; Li, D.; Gan, R.Y.; Li, H.B. Phenolic compounds and bioactivities of pigmented rice. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 2013, 53, 296–306.
  30. Callcott, E.T.; Santhakumar, A.B.; Strappe, P.; Luo, J.; Blanchard, C.L. Polyphenols from Australian-grown pigmented red and purple rice inhibit adipocyte differentiation. J. Cereal Sci. 2018, 81, 140–146.
  31. Melini, V.; Panfili, G.; Fratianni, A.; Acquistucci, R. Bioactive compounds in rice on Italian market: Pigmented varieties as a source of carotenoids, total phenolic compounds and anthocyanins, before and after cooking. Food Chem. 2019, 277, 119–127.
  32. Tumanian, N.; Mukhina, Z.; Esaulova, L.; Papulova, E.; Savenko, E.; Garkusha, S. Colored rice varieties of Russian breeding in terms of grain quality for development of functional rice varieties. E3S Web Conf. 2020, 224, 04021.
  33. Zelenskaya, O.; Zelensky, G.; Ostapenko, N.; Tumanyan, I. Genetic resources of rice (Oryza sativa L.) with colored pericarp. Vavilov J. Genet. Breed. 2018, 22, 296–303.
  34. OAE. Rice Export. Office of Agricultural Economics, Thai Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. 2020. Available online: (accessed on 13 January 2020). (In Thai).
  35. DFT. Notification of Ministry of Commerce. Subject: Standards for Thai Colour Rice B.E. 2562. Department of Foreign Trade. 2019. Available online: (accessed on 8 January 2020).
  36. Rerkasem, B.; Jumrus, S.; Yimyam, N. Variation of grain nutritional quality among Thai purple rice genotypes grown at two different altitudes. ScienceAsia 2015, 41, 377.
  37. Jaksomsak, P.; Rerkasem, B.; Prom-u-thai, C. Variation in nutritional quality of pigmented rice varieties under different water regimes. Plant. Prod. Sci. 2020, 24, 244–255.
  38. Yamuangmorn, S.; Dell, B.; Rerkasem, B.; Prom-u-thai, C. Applying nitrogen fertilizer increased anthocyanin in vegetative shoots but not in grain of purple rice genotypes. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2018, 98, 4527–4532.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Plant Sciences
Contributor MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Chanakan Prom-u-thai
View Times: 711
Revisions: 3 times (View History)
Update Date: 30 Sep 2021
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    Feedback