Summary

HandWiki is the world's largest wiki-style encyclopedia dedicated to science, technology and computing. It allows you to create and edit articles as long as you have external citations and login account. In addition, this is a content management environment that can be used for collaborative editing of original scholarly content, such as books, manuals, monographs and tutorials.

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Climate Change (General Concept)
Climate change occurs when changes in Earth's climate system result in new weather patterns that remain in place for an extended period of time. This length of time can be as short as a few decades to as long as millions of years. Scientists have identified many episodes of climate change during Earth's geological history; more recently since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities driving global warming, and the terms are commonly used interchangeably in that context. The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also gives off energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Climate change is a long-term, sustained trend of change in climate. Such changes can be the result of "internal variability", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate change can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate change has various consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.
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  • 14 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Name Server
A name server is a computer application that implements a network service for providing responses to queries against a directory service. It translates an often humanly meaningful, text-based identifier to a system-internal, often numeric identification or addressing component. This service is performed by the server in response to a service protocol request. An example of a name server is the server component of the Domain Name System (DNS), one of the two principal namespaces of the Internet. The most important function of DNS servers is the translation (resolution) of human-memorable domain names and hostnames into the corresponding numeric Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, the second principal name space of the Internet which is used to identify and locate computer systems and resources on the Internet.
  • 670
  • 31 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Molecular Virology
Molecular virology is the study of viruses on a molecular level. Viruses are submicroscopic parasites that replicate inside host cells. They are able to successfully infect and parasitize all kinds of life forms- from microorganisms to plants and animals- and as a result viruses have more biological diversity than the rest of the bacterial, plant, and animal kingdoms combined. Studying this diversity is the key to a better understanding of how viruses interact with their hosts, replicate inside them, and cause diseases.
  • 1.3K
  • 31 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Gnash
Gnash is a media player for playing SWF files. Gnash is available both as a standalone player for desktop computers and embedded devices, as well as a plugin for the browsers still supporting NPAPI. It is part of the GNU Project and is a free and open-source alternative to Adobe Flash Player. It was developed from the gameswf project. Gnash was first announced in late 2005 by software developer John Gilmore. (As of 2011), the project's maintainer is Rob Savoye. The main developer's web site for Gnash is located on the Free Software Foundation's GNU Savannah project support server. Gnash supports most SWF v7 features and some SWF v8 and v9, however SWF v10 is not supported.
  • 1.0K
  • 31 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Democracy 2.1
Janeček Method (D21) is an electoral system created by Czech mathematician Karel Janeček. Janeček Method (D21) is a modern voting and electoral method. Its main advantage is an effect of multiple votes which enables casting multiple plus votes, and in certain cases, also a minus vote. Multiple votes enable us to express a wider scope of preferences, thereby reflecting the complexities of social choice more accurately. The system was developed ostensibly in response to corruption within the Czech political system. Though it has not yet been used in any general elections, D21 has found use in several participatory budgeting programs conducted by cities and countries around the world, including the New York City. The game Prezident 21 was introduced in 2016 in order to help familiarize people with the D21 system.
  • 1.8K
  • 31 Oct 2022
Topic Review
List of Virus Species
Excluded are other ranks of virus, viroids and prions. Also excluded are more recently discovered viruses such as Bourbon Virus, common names and obsolete names for viruses.
  • 1.3K
  • 31 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Command Responsibility
Command responsibility (also superior responsibility, the Yamashita standard, and the Medina standard) is the legal doctrine of hierarchical accountability for war crimes. The legal doctrine of command responsibility was codified in the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, and is partly based upon the American Lieber Code, a manual of war for the Union forces, authorised by President A. Lincoln in 1863, two years into the course of the U.S. civil war. The legal doctrine of command responsibility was first applied by the German Supreme Court, in the Leipzig War Crimes Trials (1921), which included the trial of Imperial German Army officer Emil Müller for war crimes committed during the First World War (1914–1918). The Yamashita standard derived from the incorporation to the U.S. Code of the legal doctrine of command responsibility, as codified in the two Hague Conventions. That legal precedent, decided by the U.S. Supreme Court, allowed the U.S. prosecution of the war-crimes case against General Tomoyuki Yamashita, for the atrocities committed by his soldiers in the Philippine Islands, in the Pacific Theatre (1941–1945) of the Second World War. A U.S. military tribunal charged Yamashita with "unlawfully disregarding, and failing to discharge, his duty as a commander to control the acts of members of his command, by permitting them to commit war crimes." The Medina standard expanded the U.S. Code to include the criminal liability of U.S. military officers for the war crimes committed by their subordinates, as are military officers of an enemy power, e.g. the war-crimes trial of Gen. Yamashita in 1945. The Medina standard originated from the charging, prosecution, and court-martial of U.S. Army Captain Ernest Medina in 1971, for not exercising his superior responsibility as company commander, by not acting to halt the commission of a war crime by his soldiers — the My Lai Massacre (16 March 1968) during the Vietnam War (1945–1975).
  • 2.9K
  • 31 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Kune
Kune is a free/open source distributed social network focused on collaboration rather than just on communication. That is, it focuses on online real-time collaborative editing, decentralized social networking and web publishing, while focusing on workgroups rather than just on individuals. It aims to allow for the creation of online spaces for collaborative work where organizations and individuals can build projects online, coordinate common agendas, set up virtual meetings, publish on the web, and join organizations with similar interests. It has a special focus on Free Culture and social movements needs. Kune is a project of the Comunes Collective.
  • 1.2K
  • 31 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Sami (Chimpanzee)
Sami (Serbian Cyrillic: Сами; 1979 – 11 September 1992) was a chimpanzee who was kept at the Belgrade Zoo between January 1988 and September 1992. Sami managed to escape from his enclosure twice within the span of several days in February 1988; he was recaptured both times. During his first escape attempt, Sami headed for the Balkan Cinema in downtown Belgrade and then to Kalemegdan Park. Before he could reach Kalemegdan Park, Sami was cornered at Students Square. He was eventually convinced to return to his enclosure by zoo director Vuk Bojović, who took Sami by the hand and drove him back to the zoo in his car. Sami's second escape attempt, which occurred two days later, was the subject of intense media scrutiny. Over 4,000 Belgraders, many of whom identified with the chimpanzee's predicament and drew parallels between Sami's captivity and their own plight under communism, gathered outside the courtyard where Sami had been cornered and held up placards imploring Sami not to give himself up. Sami was eventually shot with a tranquilizer dart and taken back to the zoo. The publicity sparked by Sami's two escape attempts prompted calls for infrastructure improvements to the Belgrade Zoo, leading to the construction of a new gate and several new enclosures. Sami died of natural causes in 1992 and was buried at the lawn next to the zoo's entrance. Four years later, a bronze statue of the chimpanzee was unveiled at the zoo.
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  • 31 Oct 2022
Topic Review
König's Lemma
König's lemma or Kőnig's infinity lemma is a theorem in graph theory due to Dénes Kőnig (1927). It gives a sufficient condition for an infinite graph to have an infinitely long path. The computability aspects of this theorem have been thoroughly investigated by researchers in mathematical logic, especially in computability theory. This theorem also has important roles in constructive mathematics and proof theory.
  • 2.0K
  • 31 Oct 2022
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