Summary

Environmental science emerged from the fields of natural history and medicine during the Enlightenment. Today, it provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems. Environmental studies are incorporating more of the social sciences in order to understand human relationships, perceptions and policies towards the environment. This entry collection features information about design and technology for improving environmental quality in every aspect.

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Topic Review
Insect Pest and Disease Threats to Forest Plantations
The planted forest area in Vietnam increased from 3.0 to 4.4 million hectares in the period 2010–2020, but the loss of productivity from pests and diseases continues to be a problem. During this period, frequent and systematic plantation forest health surveys were conducted on 12 native and 4 exotic genera of trees as well as bamboo across eight forest geographic regions of Vietnam. Damage caused by insects and pathogens was quantified in the field and laboratory in Hanoi. 
  • 1.2K
  • 23 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Nanocellulose-Based Materials for Water Treatment
Nanocelluloses are promising bio-nano-materials for use as water treatment materials in environmental protection and remediation. This review aims at giving an overview of nanocellulose requirements concerning emerging nanotechnologies of waster treatments and purification, i.e., adsorption, absorption, flocculation, photocatalytic degradation, disinfection, antifouling, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and reverse osmosis. 
  • 2.2K
  • 23 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Film–Forming Kinetics in Organic Solar Cells
Solution–processed organic solar cells (OSC) have been explored widely due to their low cost and convenience, and impressive power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) which have surpassed 18%. In particular, the optimization of film morphology, including the phase separation structure and crystallinity degree of donor and acceptor domains, is crucially important to the improvement in PCE. Considering that the film morphology optimization of many blends can be achieved by regulating the film–forming process, it is necessary to take note of the employment of solvents and additives used during film processing, as well as the film–forming conditions.
  • 907
  • 23 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Cyanobacteria as Biocatalysts
Cyanobacteria constitute an interesting group of photosynthetic microorganisms due to their morphological and genetic diversity that is related to their extremely long evolution process. The diverse cell structure is characterized by the fact that they occur in many morphological forms, from small single cells through to larger ones as well as branches, threads, or spirals. In the field of biotechnology, biocatalysis, is enriched by the enzymatic systems of cyanobacteria, regarding their uniqueness as photosynthesis-dependent organisms.
  • 961
  • 23 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Helminth Management
Understanding and managing the risk posed by helminth eggs (HE) is a key concern for wastewater engineers and public health regulators. The treatment processes that produce recycled water from sewage at wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) rely on achieving a defined log10 reduction value (LRV) in HE concentration during the production of recycled water from sewage to achieve the guideline concentration of ≤1.0 HE/L.
  • 1.2K
  • 25 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Graphene, and Graphene Nanoribbons in Biomedicine
Graphene and graphene nanoribbons hold the promise for improving existing contrast agents as well as drug delivery and biosensing. The entry “Graphene, and Graphene Nanoribbons in Biomedicine” to Encyclopedia is dedicated to applications of graphene and graphene nanoribbons in biomedicine.
  • 1.7K
  • 25 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Efficiency-Based Global Green Manufacturing Innovation Index
Manufacturing Innovation Index (GGMII) was developed by formulating an input-oriented data envelopment analysis model. Criteria such as the value added to the gross domestic product (GDP), corresponding CO2 emissions, and unemployment rates were examined in order to represent the economic, environmental, and social dimensions of SD, respectively. Other scientific and technological dimensions were also considered. The data corresponding to all ten of the criteria were collected from World Bank Open Data. 
  • 1.3K
  • 21 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Student Engagement in Sustainability Education and Study Abroad
An investigation of the influence of sustainability education and study abroad coursework on levels of a key component of academic success, student engagement. Sustainability education and study abroad courses have broad potential to promote engagement and, as such, should be considered part of the general learning requirement of university education.
  • 1.0K
  • 23 Nov 2021
Topic Review
RNAi Crop Protection
RNAi technology is a versatile, effective, safe, and eco-friendly alternative for crop protection. There is plenty of evidence of its use through host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) and emerging evidence that spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS) techniques can work as well to control viruses, bacteria, fungi, insects, and nematodes. For SIGS, its most significant challenge is achieving stability and avoiding premature degradation of RNAi in the environment or during its absorption by the target organism.
  • 1.4K
  • 22 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Third Dimension in Cancer
From the development of self-aggregating, scaffold-free multicellular spheroids to the inclusion of scaffold systems, 3D models have progressively increased in complexity to better mimic native tissues. The inclusion of a third dimension in cancer models allows researchers to zoom out from a significant but limited cancer cell research approach to a wider investigation of the tumor microenvironment. This model can include multiple cell types and many elements from the extracellular matrix (ECM), which provides mechanical support for the tissue, mediates cell-microenvironment interactions, and plays a key role in cancer cell invasion. Both biochemical and biophysical signals from the extracellular space strongly influence cell fate, the epigenetic landscape, and gene expression. Specifically, a detailed mechanistic understanding of tumor cell-ECM interactions, especially during cancer invasion, is lacking.
  • 922
  • 22 Nov 2021
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