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Topic Review
Vitamin A Transporters in Visual Function
Vitamins are essential compounds obtained through diet that are necessary for normal development and function in an organism. One of the most important vitamins for human physiology is vitamin A, a group of retinoid compounds and carotenoids, which generally function as a mediator for cell growth, differentiation, immunity, and embryonic development, as well as serving as a key component in the phototransduction cycle in the vertebrate retina. 
  • 965
  • 25 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Skull Vibration Induced Nystagmus
Skull vibration induced nystagmus (SVIN) is a dramatic clinical observation—if a vibrator is applied to either mastoid of a patient with a total unilateral vestibular loss (TUVL) and switched on at a frequency of 100 Hz and at moderate intensity (about the strength a body massager) the patient immediately has a nystagmus, mainly horizontal, with the clinically obvious quick phases (QPs) beating away from the lesioned ear.
  • 960
  • 25 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Mycotoxins Affect Animals’ Oxidative Status
Mycotoxins appear to be the “Achilles’ heel” of the agriculture sector inducing enormous economic losses and representing a severe risk to the health of humans and animals. Although novel determination protocols have been developed and legislation has been implemented within Europe, the side effects of mycotoxins on the homeostatic mechanisms of the animals have not been extensively considered. The findings support the idea that the antioxidant systems in both monogastrics and ruminants are challenged under the detrimental effect of mycotoxins by increasing the toxic lipid peroxidation by-product malondialdehyde (MDA) and inhibiting the activity of antioxidant defense mechanisms.The degree of oxidative stress is related to the duration of contamination, co-contamination, the synergetic effects, toxin levels, animal age, species, and productive stage. Since the damaging effects of MDA and other by-products derived by lipid peroxidation as well as reactive oxygen species have been extensively studied on human health, a more integrated monitoring mechanism (which will take into account the oxidative stability) is urgently required to be implemented in animal products.
  • 957
  • 16 Oct 2021
Topic Review
Rieske Iron-Sulfur Protein in COPD and Pulmonary Hypertension
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is currently the third leading cause of death worldwide. The development of pulmonary hypertension (PH) accounts for the high mortality rate in COPD patients. Recent studies from the researchers' laboratory and others have highlighted the important role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) signaling in the development of COPD and associated PH. ROS are primarily generated in mitochondrial complex III in pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs). Rieske iron-sulfur protein (RISP), a catalytic subunit of mitochondrial complex III, is the major player in the generation of ROS. RISP plays a critical role in pulmonary vasoconstriction, remodeling, and hypertension.
  • 951
  • 17 Nov 2022
Topic Review
Climate Change and Its Impact on Crops
Plants are a highly advanced kingdom of living organisms on the earth. They survive under all climatic and weather variabilities, including low and high temperature, rainfall, radiation, less nutrients, and high salinity. Even though they are adapted to various environmental factors, which are variable, the performance of a crop will be compensated under sub/supra optimal conditions. 
  • 951
  • 22 Dec 2022
Topic Review
PPARs and Their Neuroprotective Effects in Parkinson’s Disease
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) belong to subgroup 1 of the nuclear receptor superfamily. They are known to form heterodimers with the retinoid X receptors (RXRs) when activated by endogenous or exogenous ligands and to bind to a co-activator such as PGC-1α.
  • 948
  • 22 Feb 2023
Topic Review
Roles of Cav1.2 in Pathogenesis of Hypertension-Related Disorders
Blood pressure is determined by cardiac output and peripheral vascular resistance. The L-type voltage-gated Ca2+ (Cav1.2) channel in small arteries and arterioles plays an essential role in regulating Ca2+ influx, vascular resistance, and blood pressure. Hypertension and preeclampsia are characterized by high blood pressure. In addition, diabetes has a high prevalence of hypertension. The etiology of these disorders remains elusive, involving the complex interplay of environmental and genetic factors. Common to these disorders are oxidative stress and vascular dysfunction. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) derived from NADPH oxidases (NOXs) and mitochondria are primary sources of vascular oxidative stress, whereas dysfunction of the Cav1.2 channel confers increased vascular resistance in hypertension. 
  • 947
  • 20 Jan 2023
Topic Review
Obesity and Aging
Today, inactivity and high-calorie diets contribute to the development of obesity and premature aging. In addition, the population of elderly people is growing due to improvements in healthcare management. Obesity and aging are together key risk factors for non-communicable diseases associated with several co-morbidities and increased mortality, with a major impact on skeletal muscle defect and/or poor muscle mass quality.
  • 943
  • 21 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Pharmaceutical Drug and Metabolic Adaptions/Reprogramming in β-Cells
Islet inflammation in T1DM is characterized by leukocyte infiltrates, in particular macrophages and T-cells which damage β-cells by release of cytokines, ROS and NO and also activation of death-receptor-mediated death pathways and subsequent phagocytosis. Production of cytokines such as INF-γ, TNFα and IL-1β act in synergy to promote elevation in concentration and increase in activity of NADPH oxidase and iNOS consequently increasing the formation of products including ROS and NO, respectively. The mechanism of action of INF-γ, TNFα and IL-1β involves stimulation of transcription factors including NFκB (in mouse islet β-cells).
  • 941
  • 29 Mar 2022
Topic Review
Neuroglobin in Retinal Neurodegeneration
Retinal neurodegeneration affects an increasing number of people worldwide causing vision impairments and blindness, reducing quality of life, and generating a great economic challenge. Due to the complexity of the tissue, and the diversity of retinal neurodegenerative diseases in terms of etiology and clinical presentation, so far, there are no cures. The discovering of the intracellular monomeric globin neuroglobin (NGB), found at high concentration in the retina, has opened new possibilities for the treatment of retinal disease.
  • 934
  • 30 Nov 2021
Topic Review
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis with the Enteric Nervous System
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease affecting motor neurons in the spinal cord, cerebral cortex, and medulla oblongata. Most patients present a clinical phenotype of classic ALS—with predominant atrophy, muscle weakness, and fasciculations—and survival of 3 to 5 years following diagnosis. There are two types of ALS: the familial form with genetic involvement, and the sporadic form with a multifactorial origin. ALS pathophysiology is characterized by involvement of multiple processes, including oxidative stress, glutamate excitotoxicity, and neuroinflammation. Moreover, it is proposed that conditioning risk factors affect ALS development—such as susceptibility to neurodegeneration in motor neurons, the intensity of performed physical activity, and intestinal dysbiosis with involvement of the enteric nervous system—which supports the existing theories of disease generation.
  • 933
  • 14 Apr 2023
Topic Review
Pyrophosphate in Vascular Calcification
In vertebrates, plasma and other extracellular fluids are supersaturated with phosphate and calcium, causing a tendency for spontaneous calcium-phosphate precipitation. Therefore, the synthesis of calcium phosphate deposition inhibitors is essential for survival, including pyrophosphate and several proteins.
  • 932
  • 21 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Galectin-3 in Kidney Diseases
Galectin-3 (Gal-3) is a 30KDa lectin implicated in multiple pathophysiology pathways including renal damage and fibrosis. Gal-3 binds β-galactoside through its carbohydrate-recognition domain.
  • 931
  • 08 Apr 2022
Topic Review
Colonic Fluid and Electrolyte Transport 2022
The colon is the final segment of the vertebrate digestive system, where fluid and electrolyte transport can be modulated to maintain intestinal and whole-body homeostasis. The expression and activity of many ion transporters in the colon are controlled by a complex and delicate homeostatic ion balance, such that hormones (i.e., aldosterone and angiotensin), pathophysiological inhibitors (i.e., Cholera and STa toxins) and diseases (i.e., metastatic changes) prompt surprisingly distinct responses between the proximal and distal colon segments. Modern and classical experimental methods, such as real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), Ussing chambers, genome-wide analysis, next-generation epigenetic sequencing analysis, immunocytochemistry, patch clamping, and siRNA, have allowed the localization, characterization, and measurement of ion transporters. The differential expression and regulation of transporters, described using the following methods, is what gives the proximal and distal colon, apical and basolateral epithelial membranes, and crypts and surface cells unique homeostatic functions and responses to various drugs, hormones, and immune factors.
  • 929
  • 06 Jun 2022
Topic Review
Mechanisms of Atrial Fibrillation
Atrial fibrillation (AF) is a very common arrhythmia that mainly affects older individuals. The mechanism of atrial fibrillation is complex and is related to the pathogenesis of trigger activation and the perpetuation of arrhythmia. The pulmonary veins in the left atrium arei confirm that onfirm the most common triggers due to their distinct anatomical and electrophysiological properties.
  • 929
  • 12 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Corin in Regulation of Sodium Homeostasis
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) is a crucial element of the cardiac endocrine function that promotes natriuresis, diuresis, and vasodilation, thereby protecting normal blood pressure and cardiac function. Corin is a type II transmembrane serine protease that is highly expressed in the heart, where it converts the ANP precursor to mature ANP. Corin deficiency prevents ANP activation and causes hypertension and heart disease. In addition to the heart, corin is expressed in other tissues, including those of the kidney, skin, and uterus, where corin-mediated ANP production and signaling act locally to promote sodium excretion and vascular remodeling. These results indicate that corin and ANP function in many tissues via endocrine and autocrine mechanisms. In heart failure patients, impaired natriuretic peptide processing is a common pathological mechanism that contributes to sodium and body fluid retention.
  • 928
  • 11 Jul 2022
Topic Review
Vitamin D against COVID-19
Many studies suggest that vitamin D improves immune function, reducing susceptibility to infection. In contrast, an extensive number of scientific studies highlight its immunosuppressive effects. Thus, it seems that vitamin D supports immune response under physiological conditions, but it also has an active role in autoimmunity prevention. In short, its effects would depend on the immunological situation of the patient.
  • 922
  • 30 Dec 2021
Topic Review
Neurophysiology of Brain Networks
Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the leading neurodegenerative disorders. It is considered a movement disorder, although it is accepted that many nonmotor symptoms accompany classic motor symptoms. The overlap of motor and nonmotor symptoms complicates the clinical diagnosis and management. Loss modulation secondary to the absence of dopamine due to degeneration of the substantia nigra compacta shows changes in firing rates and patterns, oscillatory activity, and higher interneuronal synchronization in the basal-ganglia-thalamus-cortex and nigrovagal network involvement in motor and nonmotor symptoms, respectively. These neurophysiological changes can be monitored by electrophysiological assessment, especially in the network oscillation in the beta band level in parkinsonism.
  • 922
  • 02 Jun 2023
Topic Review
Role of Adenosine in Extreme Oxygen Pressure  Exposure
At high altitudes, the increased adenosine concentration contributes to brain protection against hypoxia through various mechanisms such as stimulation of glycogenolysis for ATP production, reduction in neuronal energy requirements, enhancement in 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate production, and increase in cerebral blood flow secondary to vasodilation of cerebral arteries. In the context of mountain illness, the increased level of A2AR expression leads to glial dysfunction through neuroinflammation and is involved in the pathogenesis of neurological disorders. Nonetheless, a high level of adenosine concentration can protect against high-altitude pulmonary edema via a decrease in pulmonary arterial pressure. The adenosinergic system is also involved in the acclimatization phenomenon induced by prolonged exposure to altitude hypoxia. During hyperoxic exposure, decreased extracellular adenosine and low A2A receptor expression contribute to vasoconstriction. The resulting decrease in cerebral blood flow is considered a preventive phenomenon against cerebral oxygen toxicity through the decrease in oxygen delivery to the brain. With regard to lung oxygen toxicity, hyperoxia leads to an increase in extracellular adenosine, which acts to preserve pulmonary barrier function. Changes in the adenosinergic system induced by exposure to extreme oxygen partial pressures frequently have a benefit in decreasing the risk of adverse effects.
  • 918
  • 28 Oct 2022
Topic Review
Follicle-Stimulating Hormone Extra-Gonadal and Non-Canonical Effects in Males
Recombinant follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is commonly used for the treatment of female and male infertility FSH is composed of an α subunit, shared with other hormones, and a β subunit, which confers specificity of biological action by interacting with its surface receptor (FSHR), predominantly located in granulosa and Sertoli cells. Beyond the well-known effects of FSH on reproductive functions the attention has recently focused on the extra-gonadal effects of FSH, specifically on bone and adipose tissue metabolsm, the cardiovascular and immune systems and the prostate gland. FSH could therefore be involved in several pathological and physiological processes, which are still not completely understood.
  • 910
  • 16 Jun 2023
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