Liquid-Chromatographic Methods for Carboxylic Acids: History
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Carboxyl-bearing low-molecular-weight compounds such as keto acids, fatty acids, and other organic acids are involved in a myriad of metabolic pathways owing to their high polarity and solubility in biological fluids. Various disease areas such as cancer, myeloid leukemia, heart disease, liver disease, and lifestyle diseases (obesity and diabetes) were found to be related to certain metabolic pathways and changes in the concentrations of the compounds involved in those pathways. Therefore, the quantification of such compounds provides useful information pertaining to diagnosis, pathological conditions, and disease mechanisms, spurring the development of numerous analytical methods for this purpose.

  • fluorescence
  • mass spectrometry
  • fatty acids
  • perfluorinated carboxylic acids
  • α-keto acids

1. Introduction 

Quantification of low-molecular-weight compounds, as exemplified by metabolomics studies, has become increasingly important in the life sciences. Metabolite analysis provides metabolic and biochemical status of particular biological systems and valuable insights into disease development and diagnosis [1][2][3][4][5][6]. There are numerous classes of low-molecular-weight compounds, and they are categorized based on their functional groups, including amine, thiol, and carboxylic groups. Low-molecular-weight carboxylic acids are involved in various metabolic pathways. For example, the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, which is the principal energy-producing process in cells, involves nine carboxylic acid compounds. Fatty acids are integral components of lipids, and consist of carboxylic acids with long aliphatic chains.

Hence, highly sensitive and selective methods for the determination of biologically important carboxylic acids are required for biological investigations, and, thus far, numerous analytical methods have been developed. For selective determination, solid-phase extraction or solvent extraction pretreatment is commonly performed, followed by separation techniques such as liquid chromatography (LC), gas chromatography (GC), and capillary electrophoresis. The choice of detection method is important for trace amounts of carboxylic acids in biological samples. Ultraviolet absorbance detection is rarely implemented due to the absence of chromophores in carboxylic acids. Fluorescence detection following derivatization and mass spectrometry has the advantage of high sensitivity.

2. Analytical methods for fatty acids in biological samples

APF: 6-oxy-(acetyl piperazine)fluorescein, NOEPES: 2-(2-naphoxy)ethyl 2-(piperidino)ethanesulfonate, HEC: 9-(2-hydroxyethyl)-carbazole, DBD-ED: 4-N,N-dimethylaminosulfonyl-7-N-(2-aminoethyl)amino-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole, NT: 2-(2,3-naphthalimino)ethyl trifluoromethanesulfonate, AMPP: N-(4-aminomethylphenyl)pyridinium, AminoxyTMT: aminoxy tandem mass tags, DBD-PZ-NH2: 7-(N,N-dimethylaminosulfonyl)-4-(aminoethyl)piperazino-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole, DAABD-AE: 4-[2-(N,N-dimethylamino)ethylaminosulfonyl]-7-(2-aminoethylamino)-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole, MePZBD-AE: [4-(4-N-methyl)piperazinosulfonyl]-7-(2-aminoethylamino)-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole, APZBD-NHMe: [4-(4-N-aminoethyl)piperazinosulfonyl]-7-methylamino-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole, DMPP: 2,4-dimethoxy-6-piperazin-1-yl pyrimidine, DMED: 2-dimethylaminoethylamine, AEMP: 2-(2-aminoethyl)-1-methylpyrrolidine, NAPP: N-(3-aminopropyl)pyrrolidine.

3. Analytical methods for TCA cycle and glycolysis-related compounds in biological samples

9-CMA: 9-chloromethyl anthracene, DBD-PZ: 7-(N,N-dimethylaminosulfonyl)-4-piperazino-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole.

4. Analytical methods for amino acid metabolites in biological samples

 

PHP-THβC: (1R, 3S)-1-(D-gluco-1, 2, 3, 4, 5-pentahydroxypentyl)-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid, DOPAC: 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, HVA: homovanillic acid, 3-HG: 3-hydroxyglutaric acid, DAABD-AE: 4-[2-(N,N-dimethylamino)ethylaminosulfonyl]-7-(2-aminoethylamino)-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole, DmPABr: dimethylaminophenacyl bromide

5. Analytical methods for perfluorinated carboxylic acids (PFCAs) in biological samples

PFASs: polyfluoroalkyl substances, MASH: 10-methyl-acridone-2-sulfonohydrazide.

6. Analytical methods for α-keto acids and 2-hydroxyglutaric acid (2-HG) in biological samples

OPD: o-phenylenediamine, DMB: 1,2-diamino-4,5-methylenedioxybenzene, O-PFBO: O-(2,3,4,5,6-pentafluorobenzyl)oxime, DATAN: (+)-o,o’-diacetyl-l-tartaric anhydride, TSPC: N-(p-toluenesulfonyl)-L-phenylalanyl chloride.

7. Analytical methods for 2-aminothiazoline-4-carboxylic acid (ATCA), 2-methylthiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid (MTCA), and 2-thiothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid (TTCA) in biological samples

MISBSE: molecularly imprinted stir bar sorption extraction.

8. Analytical methods for other carboxylic acids in biological samples

Target Compounds

Biological Sample

Sample Treatment

Derivatization Reagent

Separation Mode

Detection Method

LOD

Recovery

Ref.

7 Bile acids

Human saliva

SPE and solvent extraction

2-Picolylamine

RPLC

MS/MS

1.5–5.6 fmol

[75]

3 Bile acids, 8 fatty acids

Human plasma and saliva

Solid phase extraction

APBQ

RPLC

MS/MS

0.19–0.51 fmol

[76]

7 Bile acids, 9 fatty acids

Human serum

Solvent extraction

DBCETS

RPLC

FL: 300/395 nm

0.28–0.70 ng/mL

92–102%

[77]

4 Bile acids

C. bovis

Centrifugation

2-bromo-4′-nitroacetophenone

RPLC

UV: 263 nm

0.25–0.31 ng

94–99%

[78]

7 Bile acids

Human feces

Solid phase extraction

Phenacyl bromide

RPLC

UV: 254 nm

1.22–1.46 pmol

72–102%

[79]

 

Human feces

Solid phase extraction

None

PRLC

MS/MS

[79]

Dihydroxyoxocholestenoic acids

Human CSF and plasma

Solid phase extraction

Isotope-label ed Girard’s P Reagent

RPLC

MS

0.02–0.05 ng/mL

[80]

7 THGC glucuronides

Human urine

Centrifugation

Isotope-labeled DAPPZ

RPLC

MS/MS

0.008–0.16 µg/mL (LOQ)

[81]

Orotic acid

Urine

Dilution

None

RPLC

MS/MS

0.15 µM

[82]

Metabolome

Human urine

Centrifugation

Isotope-label ed DmPABr

RPLC

MS

[83]

Metabolome

Human urine

Centrifugation

Isotope-labeled dansyl hydrazine

RPLC

MS

[84]

APBQ: 1-(3-aminopropyl)-3-bromoquinolinium bromide, DBCETS: 2-(7H-dibenzo[a,g]carbazol-7-yl)ethyl 4-methylbenzenesulfonate, DAPPZ: 1-[(4-dimethylaminophenyl)-carbonyl]piperazine, DmPABr: dimethylaminophenacyl bromide.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/molecules25214883

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