Microgrid Control: History
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Contributor:
Musawenkosi Lethumcebo Thanduxolo Zulu
,
Rudiren Pillay Carpanen
,
Remy Tiako

Microgrids (MGs) are advancing in terms of intelligence, distribution, and flexibility. Electrical grids are being dominated by cutting-edge power electronics and artificial intelligence (AI) techniques, and this trend may continue for many years to come.

  • artificial intelligence (AI)
  • hybrid microgrids
  • distributed energy resources (DER)
  • energy storage system

1. Introduction

1.1. Conventional Control

The primary operational and control characteristics of the traditional control architecture are reviewed. From the comparisons, it can be concluded that distributed control approaches will be crucial in decarbonizing the future distribution or island grid as DER penetration in the distribution network increases. Although it is very complicated to accomplish, it is very successful in terms of control features.

1.2. Unconventional Control

A virtual impedance control loop can be added to the primary layer to simulate the actual behavior of the system, which is often responsible for droop control to stabilize and dampen the system. Local controllers carry out the intricate controlling; therefore, this layer can respond quickly or in real time. The use of a main control, in which one convertor serves as the master and the others as slaves, is also suggested in [1].

2. Microgrid Mode of Operation

Microgrids can run in one of two ways: connected to the grid or as an island. Each operating mode has a separate set of operational needs. The following are the modes.

2.1. Grid-Connected Mode

Without any disruptions to the main grid’s power quality leading to power outages, it is otherwise in the regular working mode. In this mode, the microgrid may either import or export power to the main grid and deliver power to its full local load, depending on the total amount of power generation of the local load. The microgrid also keeps the electricity flow in this mode bidirectional.

2.2. Standalone Mode

The microgrid disconnects from the main grid and runs independently whenever there is a failure or change in power quality on the main grid. The microgrid will sustain high-quality power and could give users a continuous supply if there is a problem with the main grid causing power outages. Furthermore, the microgrid can easily be islanded from the main grid if other disturbances such as frequency drops, voltage sags, or any fault develop in the main grid [2][3][4].

3. Microgrid Frameworks

The microgrid may either import or export power to the main grid and deliver power to its full local load, depending on the total amount required for users. Because microgrids also manage and distribute the flow of electricity to users, they can be thought of as a scaled-down version of the existing centralized electrical system. However, it is carried out locally, unlike the normal approach. It is possible to think of it as a single aggregated load in a power system because it only has one regulated unit [5]. A microgrid is an emerging idea that describes a small power system with a group of dispersed generators working together with correct energy management, protection devices, control devices, loads, and related software [6][7]. The two most important characteristics of microgrids are:
  • Peer-to-peer, which means that the operation of the microgrid is not dependent on the availability of a specific component, such as a master controller or a central storage system.
  • Plug-and-play, which allows DG sources to be placed anywhere in the microgrid without having to change the protection scheme. This functionality makes it easier to install developing DG sources and lowers the chance of microgrid engineering failures.
Hybrid microgrids are made up of the individual DC and AC microgrid architectures. Consequently, hybrid AC-DC microgrid contains both the AC and DC microgrid’s advantages. Figure 1 displays a genuine hybrid DC-AC microgrid architecture. Connecting AC and DC microgrids makes use of bidirectional AC-DC converters. For linking DC power generators, connecting PV panels, wind energy systems, and energy storage systems (ESS) are used, and they connect to the battery in this case, and there are loads connected from the system. For greater efficiency, photovoltaic (PV) panels connect to the DC microgrid. DC-DC boost converters are used when connecting this system for simulation of greater stability performances.
Figure 1. Hybrid DC/AC microgrid System.

4. Importance of Microgrids

(i)
Microgrids enable distributed generation and high penetration of renewable energy sources.
(ii)
Microgrids support adequate generation since they can manage internal loads and generation.
(iii)
Microgrids strengthen local economies, and their structures will attract small businesses and provide additional jobs in the area [3][8].
(iv)
Areas with microgrids will continue to receive regular power supplies during natural disasters, outages, etc.
(v)
If a microgrid can meet local demand, transmission and distribution losses in the power system are less expensive, and the cost of expanding transmission and distribution is also lowered.
(vi)
Because microgrids make use of ecofriendly renewable power generation techniques, they will aid in lowering CO2 emissions.
(vii)
It provides power to the main grid when the microgrid produces excess energy;
(viii)
Stability is altered by the microgrid.
(ix)
Compared to traditional power generation, the cost of energy produced by microgrids with distributed generating assistance is lower [9].

5. AC Microgrid Overview

In general, mixed loads (DC and AC loads), distributed generation, and energy storage devices are coupled to the common AC bus used in AC microgrids. Since most loads and the grid itself are AC, AC microgrids can be simply integrated into a traditional AC grid. As a result, it is more flexible, capable, and controllable. However, when a DC/AC converter is used to connect DC loads, DC sources and energy storage devices to the AC bus, the efficiency is intensely reduced [10][11][12]. The primary elements that need to be synchronized in AC microgrids are active power, reactive power, imbalance components, and harmonics. DC power is the primary element that needs to be controlled in DC microgrids. Consequently, the DC microgrid control system is easier to use than the AC microgrid control system [13]. In AC microgrid design before the connections, photovoltaic (PV) system-generated DC power is converted into AC using DC-AC inverters. Rectifiers convert AC power into DC power so that it can be utilized to power DC loads. Without any transformation, the AC load receives a direct supply from the AC bus. Converters use the connection between the AC bus and the wind power generation system to manage both active and reactive power. Because just phase matching is needed between the main grid and the AC microgrid, connecting to the main grid becomes simpler.

5.1. Advantages of AC Microgrid

(a)
The use of high-efficiency transformers. For distribution purposes and for the nearby local loads, the voltage of AC microgrids can be increased and decreased using transformers, respectively.
(b)
Protection techniques for AC circuits are favorable due to periodic zero voltage crossings since switching circuit breakers extinguish the fault current arc at zero crossings.
(c)
Stable voltage can be achieved by independently managing reactive power.
(d)
In grid-tied mode, the AC microgrid will automatically disconnect if any fault conditions arise in the microgrid. Since the AC load receives a direct supply from the AC microgrid, any disturbances in the main grid will not affect it [14].

5.2. Disadvantages of AC Microgrid

(a)
To power DC loads such as battery charging, computers, DC fluorescent lights, etc., AC power must be converted into DC power. These conversions result in a decrease in efficiency.
(b)
The use of power electronic converters causes an introduction of harmonics introduced into the main grid.
(c)
The DC output of renewable energy sources must be converted to AC using inverters, which makes interconnection difficult [15][16][17].

6. DC Microgrid Overview

A common DC bus connected to the grid via an AC/DC converter is utilized in a DC microgrid. AC microgrids and DC microgrids both operate under similar principles. Since a DC microgrid only requires one power conversion to link a DC bus, it is a good alternative to an AC microgrid for reducing power conversion losses. As a result, the system efficiency, cost, and system size of a DC microgrid are higher. As a result of the insufficiency of reactive power, DC microgrids are also more stable and better suited for integrating distributed energy resources (DERs) [11]. In order to reduce the cost of the power electronics converter and boost efficiency, diverse DC loads can be directly linked with the DC microgrid bus without any transformation. DC-AC converters are necessary for connecting AC loads. Research on DC microgrids is gaining traction due to the growth of DC renewable energy sources.

6.1. Advantages of a DC Microgrid

(a)
The direct connection of a battery storage system to a power source for backup is possible. In times of peak load or in the absence of any distributed generators, a backup storage system will provide power.
(b)
Direct connecting lowers the need for several power conversions and boosts system effectiveness.
(c)
It enables easy connection of renewable energy sources.
(d)
Should there be a power outage in the AC main grid, the DC microgrid’s battery storage will routinely supply electricity to loads.
(e)
The running costs and power converter loss of a DC system can be kept to a minimum because all that is needed to connect to the AC main grid is a straightforward inverter unit.

6.2. Disadvantages of a DC Microgrid

(a)
Most load units in the current power system configuration demand AC power. Therefore, a DC-only distribution network is not practical.
(b)
Compared to an AC system, voltage transformation in a DC system is less systematic.
(c)
The integration of AC generators necessitates the use of a rectifier to convert AC power to DC power [18][19].

7. Comparison of AC and DC Microgrid Conversion

The difference between AC loads and DC load conversion steps is under investigation by numerous scholars who are interested in the design of hybrid renewable energy systems and comparing the benefits of deploying the best form. Therefore, there are different conversion steps, and these come with different pros and cons. Table 1 presents the comparison of AC and DC microgrid loads.
Table 1. Comparison of AC and DC microgrid conversion steps.

Type of Microgrid

DC Load

AC Load

DC microgrid

Single conversion

Multiple conversions

AC microgrid

Multiple conversions

Single conversion

8. Hybrid Microgrid

There are numerous scholars who are interested in the design of hybrid renewable energy systems. Consequently, there is a ton of material on this subject that can be used. The aforementioned design subject relates to energy systems, where it is observed that the best distribution and optimum placement, kind, and size of generation components have been established on particular nodes. As a result, this kind of system can load the requirements at the lowest possible cost [20]. The idea of hybrid renewable energy can calculate the price and output over the technology’s lifetime. The initial estimate for the lifetime cost often comprises two components: the operational cost, such as the primary cost; and the preservation cost, both of which amount to a “fixed cost”. Furthermore, when calculating the lifespan cost, the financial values are updated according to the timing, and should be considered. As such, the optimal hybrid system designs mix producer kinds and sizes to achieve the lowest possible lifespan cost and productivity. Thus, the “optimal configuration” or “optimal design” is defined as the design with the lowest “net present value” (or NPV), with all possible hybrid system designs being in optimal transition [21][22]. To act as real-time system integration, there are numerous ways to provide an “optimal design” indicator and numerous commercially available software products. In addition, many optimal strategies are used by numerous researchers for hybrid renewable energy system sizing. In order to optimize hybrid PV/wind energy systems, researchers have used a variety of optimization techniques, including graphical construction [23][24], probabilistic techniques [25], iterative approaches, dynamic programming, artificial intelligence (AI), linear programming, and multiobjective optimization [26].
DC-DC buck converters are used to link DC loads to the DC microgrid, such as fluorescent lighting and electric automobiles. Energy storage devices are connected to the DC microgrid using bidirectional DC-DC converters [27]. The AC microgrid is also directly connected to AC loads, such as AC motors. When an AC microgrid is overburdened, power will switch over to a DC microgrid [28]. The main converter will serve as an inverter during this operation. Power will flow from the AC microgrid to the DC microgrid during the overloaded state of the DC microgrid, and the interlinking converter will serve as a rectifier [29]. Bidirectional AC/DC converters’ primary goal is to regulate power flow between DC and AC microgrids while stabilizing their respective DC and AC bus voltages and frequencies [30][31][32].
Hybrid model techniques are a beneficial collaboration of two or more separate methods that employ the beneficial effects of the methods to achieve the best possible result for a specific design problem. Because many of the challenges we face are multiobjective in nature, implementing a hybrid technique is an ideal aim in nature, and adopting a hybrid approach is a suitable alternative method to address problems that necessitate a thorough understanding of all the methods. To handle a multiobjective problem that encompasses costs, environmental consequences, fuel price risks, and imported fuel, Meza et al. [33] established a multiobjective model to generate expansion planning (MGEP) and an analytical hierarchy process (AHP) model.

9. Energy Storage System

Electrochemical systems (batteries and flow batteries), kinetic energy storage systems (flywheels), and potential energy storage are the three categories into which energy storage devices (ESS) can be divided (pumped hydro and compressed air storage). A thorough comparison of various energy storage technologies may be found in References [34][35][36][37]. Small-scale renewable energy systems cannot use pumped hydro storage or compressed air energy storage systems since these large-scale energy storage devices are typically used in high power ranges for regular power systems. In microgrid applications, energy storage devices may enhance the power quality, reliability, and stability between loads and the output of distributed generated resources. According to the characteristics of loads and dispersed energy resources, it is possible to identify more suitable energy storage devices.
The following is a summary of some important energy storage technologies suitable for MG applications: One of the most popular forms of energy storage is batteries. They fall under the categories of lithium-ion (Li-on), lead acid, nickel cadmium (Ni-Cd), and nickel metal hydride batteries. Long-term energy storage is possible using lead acid batteries, despite their poor performance and short cycle life (1200–1800 cycles). Ni-Cd batteries have higher energy densities, longer cycle lives, and require less maintenance when compared to lead acid batteries. However, its biggest drawback is a large initial capital expenditure. The energy density of NiMh batteries is around 25–30% higher than that of NiCd batteries, and they also have a cycle life that is comparable to that of lead acid batteries. In comparison to lead acid, Ni-Cd, and NiMh batteries, Li-on batteries have the best energy density; nevertheless, the investment cost and short life span are the key downsides of Li-on batteries [38][39].
To lessen the negative effects of PV integration, a battery storage system integrated with solar PV systems has been presented in Reference [40]. Simulink and Homer analyses were conducted in Ref. [38] to evaluate various battery storage solutions from a technoeconomic standpoint. Flywheel energy storage systems have a long lifespan, a high energy density, and a high power density. However, the disadvantage of flywheel energy storage is that substantial friction losses are likely to occur. They can be applied to lessen the erratic power output of solar and wind power systems. In Refs. [41][42], flywheel storage systems and a diesel generator are utilized to provide a UPS service to the critical loads. Supercapacitors, which are based on the characteristics of capacitors and electrochemical batteries without a chemical process, are also known as ultracapacitors or electric double-layer capacitors.
The use of porous membranes, which enables ion movement between two electrodes and offers direct energy storage while also reducing response time, is the primary distinction between a capacitor and a supercapacitor [38]. Additionally, its energy density and capacitance values may be hundreds to thousands of times greater than those of the capacitors. Supercapacitors have a longer cycle life, better power density, and an energy efficiency of roughly 75–80% when compared to lead acid batteries, which have a lower energy density. However, the biggest drawback of this technology is its expensive price, which is almost five times greater than that of lead acid batteries [39]. Supercapacitors have been presented as a good option for reducing the natural variations prevalent in the intermittent renewable energy sources of wind and wave, respectively. SMES systems feature extremely long lifespans (tens to thousands of cycles), extremely high efficiency (up to 95%), quick response times, and expensive implementation costs. Power factor optimization, frequency management, transient stability, and power quality enhancement are potential applications [43][44].

10. Faults and Protection in Microgrid

A hybrid microgrid’s faults can be classified as load, converter, generator side, sensor and cyberattack-initiated problem [45]. Pole–pole faults and pole–ground faults all occur at the DC load side in a hybrid microgrid [46]. The AC side experiences conventional faults, such as line to ground (L-G), line to line (L-L), line to line to ground (L-L-G), and line to line to line (L-L-L), while the AC microgrid may also experience converter faults. Given that the dispersed generator is located close to the load center, the likelihood of DC transmission line faults is lower than the likelihood of AC line failures. By using standard detection and isolation procedures, the AC side problems can be found. When a problem occurs on the DER or load side of a DC microgrid, it is important to determine if the system is in islanded mode or grid-connected mode initially. As RES cannot supply very high fault currents where synchronous generators typically deliver, the threshold value of a fault current is lower when the system is operating in standalone mode. The threshold signal value should be revised in this situation.
In a DC microgrid, converter faults are caused by either an open circuit or a short circuit in the power converter switches. Since heavy current does not flow through an open circuit when it occurs, protective devices cannot detect this problem using the overcurrent phenomena, making open circuit detection more difficult than short circuit detection. In a level 3 boost connected grid [47], a unique control approach is employed to resolve this issue. According to this method, the boost converter functions as a 3 level boost converter under normal circumstances while acting as a 2 level boost converter in abnormal circumstances [48]. The system is resilient enough to deliver half of the load because the supply is unbroken even when it is malfunctioning. In an active hybrid system, the various defects include sensor faults and problems brought on by cyberattacks. Actual values of the system parameters are provided by sensors for various controller actions. In the event that the system’s characteristics are not accurately represented by the sensor output, the controller will process misleading data and send undesirable pulse signals to the converters, which will cause the system to behave incorrectly and lose stability. The grid side converter fails to maintain current and voltage in such a circumstance. The adversary can launch a cyberattack by overwriting the sensor value in order to impose the broken state in the grid.
The sliding mode oberver technique is used to estimate error due to sensor failure or a defect caused by a cyberattack in a hybrid microgrid attack [45]. The absence of zero crossing current, reliance on converter topologies, output filter effect, and system grounding provide obstacles to DC microgrid protection, which must be addressed in a new protection scheme. A big amount of arc forms once a protection device quickly breaks a high current. Because AC has a natural zero crossing of the current, fault isolation is performed at the zero current occurrence, which results in the lowest amount of arc production. In contrast to an AC system, a DC system lacks a natural zero crossing, hence the arc’s strength is much higher. Despite several benefits, DC microgrid protection faces several difficulties. Some common issues to AC and DC systems include the inability of overcurrent relays to protect microgrids or limited fault currents in islanded mode. Despite this, there are certain additional problems that impair microgrid protection.

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/en16041786

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