3. Aging of the Dermis
According to the results of histological and ultrastructural studies, the dermis is the skin layer focusing the most significant changes associated with skin aging
[13,44][13][44]. This occurs primarily due to structural changes in dermal ECM, its reduction, and degradation
[2].
The fibers (collagen and elastin) that constitute the skin framework and are the components of “the ground substance”, as well as proteoglycans (PG) and GAGs which play a key role in maintaining firmness and hydration of the skin, undergo particularly prominent degenerative changes
[4,10][4][10]. As a result of these processes, firmness and elasticity of the skin is lost, its thickness decreases, and wrinkles form
[18,34,40,41][18][34][40][41].
The changes affect both layers of the dermis; the papillary is the upper and thinner layer, while the reticular is the next more pronounced layer
[4,10,42,45][4][10][42][45]. In the papillary layer that is adjacent to BM, a decrease in the content of perlecan (the main PG of BM) and GAG hyaluronic acid is detected (echographically visualized as a subepidermal anechogenic zone
[46]), as well as a decrease in the density and spatial orientation of collagen fibers
[47,48,49][47][48][49]. In the elastin network of the papillary layer of the dermis, the progressive atrophy of oxytalan fibers is observed, up to their complete disappearance
[10,50][10][50].
In the reticular layer, a decrease in the density of collagen fibers is accompanied by a decrease in the thickness of their bundles and an increase in the space between them
[51], while the thickening of fibers (elaunin and elastin) and a decrease in the number of functional fibers is observed in the elastic network
[10,50][10][50].
Under the chronic UVA exposure, solar elastosis affects the elastin network of both dermal layers, i.e., there is the deposition and accumulation of elastin masses possessing the incomplete molecular organization and, therefore, the incomplete function. This phenomenon is explained by the stimulating effect of UV on the expression of the gene responsible for the synthesis of elastin. Solar elastosis zones are also characterized by the accumulation of PGs
[5,10][5][10].
It should be emphasized that changes in the organization and structure of the collagen matrix are characteristic of both chrono- and photoaging of human skin
[2]. The results of the study of skin biopsy samples of elderly people have shown that the accumulation of degraded/fragmented fibers and a decrease in de novo collagen synthesis correlate both with age and with the degree of photo-damage severity
[51,52,53,54][51][52][53][54].
Along with degradation of the collagen–elastin matrix, changes also occur in “the ground substance” of the dermis, which is associated with the quantitative and qualitative transformation of GAGs and PGs (
Table 1) responsible for hydration and elasticity of the skin. In particular, the bioavailability of HA decreases significantly with age (although its amount remains unchanged
[34]), as well as biglycan
[36].
Proteoglycan decorin, that is, the smallest in size and the most important regulator of the assembly of collagen fibers, also undergoes quantitative and qualitative changes, while a decrease in the molecular weight of its polysaccharide chains has a significant negative effect on skin elasticity since decorin is involved in fibrillogenesis and determines the diameter of fibrils
[36,55][36][55]. It has been shown that during photoaging, the abnormal accumulation of HA, versican, and chondroitin sulfate is observed in the solar elastosis zones, while decorin is completely lost; all these phenomena are caused by chronic damage of the skin under UV exposure
[36].
Histological examination of skin biopsy samples of young and elderly people confirms the changes described above. Thus, the histological picture of skin sections
[4] showed that the “young” and photoprotected skin is characterized by the pronounced epidermal ridges and DEJs, as well as the highly organized network of collagen fibers and a cascade of elastic network fibers connecting BM with the papillary and reticular layers of the dermis; while the chronologically aged skin is characterized by the reduced collagen fibers and elastic network fibers (especially oxytalan fibers) and the reduced content of GAGs, whereas the photoaged skin is characterized by the reduction in collagen fibers, including type VII collagen in the area of DEJs, and by solar elastosis, that is, the accumulation of disorganized proteins of elastin fibers throughout the dermis and also the accumulation of GAGs. In the case of chronological aging of the photoprotected skin, the flattening of DEJs is observed, as well as the disorganization of the elastic network (mostly in the papillary layer), which is accompanied by the accumulation of amorphous elastin and a reduction in the number of collagen fibers. During photoaging, the skin of both young and elderly patients is characterized by the pronounced destruction of epidermal ridges and DEJs, degradation of the elastic network, and accumulation of amorphous elastin in both layers of the dermis. Aging and UV exposure cause the disorders observed in the integrative buffer system of the dermis, a decrease in functioning of the highly organized network of elastic fibers connecting all layers of the skin through cascading, and structural deformations of collagen fibers including their progressive fragmentation. All these events change the essential functional properties of the skin by reducing the skin hydration, elasticity, firmness, and strength
[2,4,46,54][2][4][46][54]. As regards the collagen fragmentation, it is important to note the degradation of type I collagen fibers, the most common structural fiber-forming protein of the skin, which comprises 80–90% of the total collagen amount, while the other two fiber-forming collagens type III collagen and type V collagen are 8 to 12% and up to 5%, respectively
[44]. With age, the level of total collagen in the skin decreases (by approximately 1% throughout the entire adult person’s life
[56]), and the level of main collagen types I and III also decreases, especially at the age of over 60
[57]. According to other data, the increase in collagen type III/I ratio occurs with age due to the increased degradation of type I collagen
[58].
4. The Relationship between the State of Collagen Matrix and Functioning of Dermal Fibroblasts
It has been shown that signals entering the dermis from outside are perceived by the ECM and transmitted to DFs, which, receiving these signals, provide ECM homeostasis
[13,51,81][13][51][59]. At the same time, the DF functioning directly depends on the state of the surrounding collagen matrix (CM). The intact CM ensures proper adhesion and mechanical tension in DFs, which allows these cells to provide collagen homeostasis while the ECM fully regulates cellular processes including cell migration, proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis
[82][60].
When the CM integrity is damaged, which occurs both during chronological aging and photoaging, changes are observed in mechanotransduction (transmission of mechanical signals from ECM to cells), promoting development of the mechanism that disrupts DF functions (
Figure 2)
[13,53,83,84][13][53][61][62].
Figure 2. Schematic representation of the relationship between mechanical tension of CM and the DF cytoskeleton during collagen production in the human dermis.
It has been revealed that integrins (heterodimeric transmembrane proteins, specific receptors, primarily, α1β1 and α2β1 to collagen type I
[85][63]) located on the cell surface are able to specifically bind ECM proteins, in particular type I collagen
[53]. The adhesion of integrins to ECM proteins contributes to the formation of bonds not only between integrins and the collagen matrix but also with actin (protein of the DF cytoskeleton) since integrins are attached to the CM from the outer surface of the cell membrane and connected to the cytoskeleton from the inner surface of the cell membrane, thereby creating focal adhesion complexes (focal contacts) that ensure the closely related regulatory and mechanical functions of DFs
[11,53,86][11][53][64]. The formation of these complexes induces a cascade of intracellular signaling pathways that regulate the DF metabolism including the balance between production of collagens and their degradation by MMPs. Due to the focal contacts, DFs can “spread out” on the CM, which allows intracellular microfilaments to exert mechanical pressure on the matrix. At the same time, the cytoskeleton microfilaments located on the inner surface of the cell membrane and in the cytoplasm are physically linked to integrins and use this coupling to tighten the collagen network
[13]. The internal tension of actin–myosin microfilaments (AMF) activates the complex of intracellular microtubules and intermediate filaments, contributing to the formation of pressure from the outside. A balance is created between the external pressure and the internal tension of AMF, which results in a dynamic tension between DFs and CM. This allows DFs to achieve the proper level of stretching which ensures the possibility of perfect functioning, including the synthesis of collagen and other ECM components
[85][63]. When the structural integrity of CM is disrupted, the mechanical tension decreases which leads to the reduction in DF focal adhesion and violates the mechanical resistance of collagen fibers. As a result, the balance between the tension inside DFs and the pressure outside them is disturbed. For this reason, DFs lose their ability to stretch and, therefore, reduce the production of collagen, while the production of MMPs, on the contrary, increases, contributing to even greater disorganization of collagen fibers. Thus, the production of collagen in the elderly (80 years and older) compared with its synthesis in the skin of the young (18–29 years) decreases by about 75%
[11[11][53],
53], while the level of collagen degradation (similar to photoaging) increases by 75%
[11]. Moreover, there is a parallel decrease in the content of collagens of types I and III, which constitute the main structural fibers of the dermal ECM
[79,87][65][66].
Despite the different etiologies, the disorders observed in both types of aging are based on the common fundamental molecular mechanisms. The oxidative stress is believed to be the main trigger of these destructive processes
[79,88][65][67].