β-Lactams: Comparison
Please note this is a comparison between Version 2 by Camila Xu and Version 1 by LILIA ANDRIANI.

Ceftaroline fosamil is an N-phosphono prodrug of the fifth generation cephalosporin derivative ceftaroline, presenting two amino side groups located at positions 3 and 7, respectively.

  • Gram-positive pathogens
  • novel anti-MRSA β-lactams
  • lipoglycopeptides

1. Introduction

The emergence of antibiotic-resistant Gram-positive pathogens has made a shift in antibiotic usage policies necessary, prompting the exploration of novel molecules that can effectively overcome the spread of multiple mechanisms of resistance.
Clinical expectations from evidence on antibiotics against Gram-positive bacteria must be diversified according to their community-acquired or hospital-acquired nature; this includes the need for oral antibiotics that are effective against penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) for community-acquired infections such as respiratory and skin/soft-tissue infections. Otherwise, more effective antibiotics are needed for serious hospital-acquired infections such as bacteremia, ventilator-associated pneumonia, and endocarditis sustained by MRSA and vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE). The primary outcome of interest is all-cause mortality, with other outcomes including duration of hospital stay, resource use, adverse events, and resistance development.

2. β-Lactams: Fifth Generation Cephalosporins

2.1. Ceftaroline

2.1.1. Chemical Structure and Mechanism of Action

The chemical structure of ceftaroline is depicted in Figure 1. Ceftaroline fosamil is an N-phosphono prodrug of the fifth generation cephalosporin derivative ceftaroline, presenting two amino side groups located at positions 3 and 7, respectively. It is administered for the treatment of adults with acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections. Ceftaroline fosamil is quickly hydrolysed to its active form, ceftaroline, via plasma phosphatases. Then, ceftaroline binds to penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), particularly PBP 2A and PBPs 1, 2, and 3, which are located on the inner membrane of the bacterial cell wall, and inactivates them. PBPs are enzymes involved in the periplasmic and membrane steps of peptidoglycan biosynthesis, the main component of the bacterial cell wall. Therefore, the inactivation of PBPs affects the cross-linkage of peptidoglycan chains, thus weakening the bacterial cell wall and cell lysis [13][1].
Figure 1.
Chemical structure depiction of ceftaroline fosamil.

2.1.2. Microbiological Target

The spectrum of activity for ceftaroline includes major pathogens found in acute bacterial skin and skin structure infections (ABSSSI) and community-acquired bacterial pneumonia (CABP). Ceftaroline is a bactericidal antibiotic with a high affinity for specific penicillin-binding-proteins (PBPs) responsible for methicillin resistance in staphylococci (PBP2a) and non-sensitivity to penicillins in pneumococci (PBP 2x/2b) [14][2] (Table 1). It shows broad-spectrum activity against a range of Gram-positive bacteria, including methicillin-susceptible S. aureus (MSSA) and MRSA, vancomycin-intermediate S. aureus (VISA), heteroresistant VISA (h-VISA), vancomycin-resistant S. aureus (VRSA), daptomycin non-susceptible and linezolid-resistant S. aureus, S. pyogenes, S. agalactiae, and S. pneumoniae (including MDR strains), while its activity against E. faecalis is modest (not active against E. faecium) [15,16][3][4]. It shows activity for respiratory community-acquired Gram-negative pathogens such as Haemophilus influenzae and M. catarrhalis, including non-extended spectrum beta-lactamase producing Enterobacterales [17][5]. It has limited activity against most non-fermenting Gram-negative rods (i.e., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Acinetobacter spp.) and many anaerobic species. Its activity against Gram-positive anaerobes, including Peptostreptococcus spp., Propionibacterium spp. and Clostridium spp., is similar to that of amoxicillin-clavulanate and 4–8 times that of ceftriaxone [18][6]. Development of resistance to ceftaroline occurs rarely in Gram-positive bacteria and at a similar rate to that of other oxyimino-cephalosporins in Gram-negative bacteria.
Table 1. Microbiological targets, Green = antimicrobial activity, red = no antimicrobial activity, yellow = partial antimicrobial activity, MRSA: methicillin-resistant S. aureus; MRSE: methicillin-resistant S. epidermidis; VRE: vancomicin-resistant Enterococcus spp.

2.1.3. Clinical Use

Ceftaroline has been approved by the EMA and FDA for the treatment of adults and children with CABP and ABSSSI. Pivotal clinical trials demonstrated non-inferiority to ceftriaxone in CAP and to aztreonam + vancomycin in cSSTI [19,20,21,22][7][8][9][10]. In real life, ceftaroline is an appealing option in patients with bacteremic MRSA pneumonia, with the advantages of hydrophily, good ELF penetration, and lower nephrotoxicity compared to vancomycin [23][11]. Its empirical use in monotherapy in nosocomial pneumonia is risky given its poor activity against Gram-negatives, especially Pseudomonas [24][12]. Ceftaroline has been successfully used as an add-on to daptomycin for persistent MRSA bacteremia [25,26][13][14]. Most off-label use is for these (in order): bacteremia, endocarditis, osteoarticular infections, HAP, and meningitis [27][15]. Animal studies showed a moderate CNS penetration with better antimicrobial activity compared to ceftriaxone + vancomycin in murine pneumococcal meningitis [28][16]. In human endocarditis and meningitis, ceftaroline is commonly used at higher doses (600 mg every 8 h) [27][15]. Encephalopathy [29][17] and neutropenia [30][18] are especially reported in patients with renal failure or with long therapies, respectively.

2.1.4. PK/PD Characteristics

Ceftaroline is a fifth generation cephalosporin characterized by a linear PK profile following an IV infusion, with Cmax AUC values increasing in proportion to dose increases within the range of 50–1000 mg. The median steady-state volume of ceftaroline distribution is 20.3 L, and the average binding of ceftaroline to human plasma proteins is 20% (Table 2) [28,29,30][16][17][18]. Ceftaroline was found to be predominantly eliminated by glomerular filtration (90%). The mean half-life is 2.6 h in subjects with normal renal function, eventually increasing to 6 h in patients with ESRD [31,32,33][19][20][21]. Drug dosage adjustments have been established for patients with moderate to severe renal impairment. When compared with the PK parameters assessed in healthy younger adults aged 18–45 years, healthy elderly subjects (≥65 years) showed modest alterations, likely due to naturally occurring decreases in renal function over time. Chauzy et al. recently showed that ceftaroline clearance increased non-linearly in patients with augmented renal clearance (ARC), with a reduced probability of reaching PK/PD targets, especially in patients with MRSA infections [Therefore, higher than conventional doses should be considered in patients with ARC]. Studies in patients and healthy volunteers have reported good distributions of ceftaroline in the muscles (50%), subcutaneous tissues (50%), and in the epithelial lying fluid (22%); lower drug penetration was reported in the bone tissues (10%) and in CSF (6%) (reviewed in [34][22]). The PK/PD index that is associated with efficacy for ceftaroline is the percentage of time that free drug concentrations, usually measured in serum/plasma, are above the bacteria MIC during a dosing interval, (fT > MIC). When this index was assessed for ceftaroline in murine models, median fT > MIC values of 36% and 44% achieved a 1-log kill for S. aureus and S. pneumoniae, respectively.
Table 2.
Summary of the main PK/PD characteristics of the novel antibiotics for the treatment of Gram-positive bacterial infections.

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