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Basson, A. Intestinal Inflammation Regulation by Soybean. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/9815 (accessed on 13 December 2025).
Basson A. Intestinal Inflammation Regulation by Soybean. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/9815. Accessed December 13, 2025.
Basson, Abigail. "Intestinal Inflammation Regulation by Soybean" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/9815 (accessed December 13, 2025).
Basson, A. (2021, May 19). Intestinal Inflammation Regulation by Soybean. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/9815
Basson, Abigail. "Intestinal Inflammation Regulation by Soybean." Encyclopedia. Web. 19 May, 2021.
Intestinal Inflammation Regulation by Soybean
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/foods10040774

Soybean, as well as soy-derived bioactive compounds (e.g., isoflavones, phytosterols, Bowman-Birk inhibitors) have been increasingly investigated because of their anti-inflammatory properties in animal models of IBD.

inflammatory bowel disease isoflavone bioactive compound isoflavones inflammation Crohn’s disease western diet plant-based

1. Introduction

The burden of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), are on the rise globally and represent one of the most prevalent chronic inflammatory conditions, particularly in the United States. Nearly half of Americans suffer from one or more chronic diseases, accounting for nearly 75% of aggregate healthcare spending [1].

Numerous lines of evidence indicate that alterations in the gut microbiota, shifting toward a pro-inflammatory state, plays a fundamental role in the development and progression of intestinal inflammation [2]. In this regard, the pathophysiology of IBD is attributed to a dysregulated T-helper cell immune response to gut microbiota catalyzed by the genetic susceptibility of an individual, which leads to a progressive and chronic loss of epithelial barrier integrity. As a result, intestinal microbiota and dietary antigens can easily translocate across the mucosal barrier and trigger mucosal immunity in the lamina propria, which serves to perpetuate the ongoing inflammatory response and chronic inflammatory state. Given the close relationship between inflammation and the generation of free radical species, oxidative stress has also been proposed as a potential underlying mechanism in IBD pathogenesis [3].

Although the causative factors of IBD remain unclear, disease incidence has been, in part, attributed to environmental factors, of which diet is considered the most important, associated with influencing the gut microbiota composition and, in turn, disease severity and progression. For instance, two major types of bacterial metabolites, short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and secondary bile acids, are known for their role in immune modulation, each causing opposing effects on intestinal inflammation at chronically high physiological levels [4]. Therefore, dietary management has been increasingly investigated for its therapeutic potential in IBD, focused on its ability to modulate the functional profile of gut microbiota and promote a balanced immunological response. Current approaches have focused primarily on chemically defined elemental diets (e.g., exclusive enteral/parenteral nutrition) or the restriction of specific food items (e.g., specific carbohydrate diet) [5][6]. However, the efficacy of such diets has been largely limited to pediatric populations [6]. More recently, plant-based diets, including the anti-oxidative agents contained therein, which interfere with cellular oxidative stress and cytokine production, have been among the dietary modalities investigated for their therapeutic potential in IBD [7][8]. With respect to individual food items, a growing body of preclinical evidence indicates that soybean, as well as soy-derived bioactives (e.g., isoflavones), have potent anti-inflammatory/anti-oxidant activity and can mitigate inflammatory changes in the gut induced either chemically or by diet (e.g., high-fat diet; HFD) [9][10][11]. In our own recent work, we demonstrated that soy, as a plant-based substitute for animal-based protein, in the context of an American diet (designed to mirror the NHANES survey), exerted a remarkable anti-inflammatory effect in the treatment and prevention of chronic CD-ileitis in mice genetically predisposed to CD [12].

Soybean or soya bean (Glycine max) is a species of legume native to East Asia, that today serves as an economically important crop in Western countries by providing a source of good-quality protein for both animals and humans. Soybeans are an exceptional source of essential nutrients, especially for protein and bioactive proteins (e.g., Bowman-Birk inhibitor; BBI), lipids such as monounsaturated fatty acids (oleic acid), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs, n-3; α-linolenic acid, n-6; linoleic acid), as well as soluble and insoluble carbohydrates (e.g., raffinose, cellulose, pectin). Several lines of evidence from human and animal studies support the notion that high soybean intake provides significant health benefits, including the prevention of heart disease [13][14] and certain cancers [15][16][17]. However, soy also contains a unique mixture of ~139 phytochemicals (e.g., isoflavones, phytosterols, saponins) that are known to confer health benefits, many of which hold strong therapeutic potential in IBD [10][17].

2. The Bioactive Composition of Soy and Its Effect in Experimental IBD

Numerous studies have demonstrated the various health benefits of soy products in preventing heart disease, obesity, cancer, diabetes, osteoporosis, and regulating blood pressure and menopause symptoms [10][18]. Based on this evidence, in 1999, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) authorized the “Soy Protein Health Claim” that 25 g of soy protein per day may reduce the risk of heart disease (Available at: https://www.fda.gov/media/108701/download, accessed on 5 March 2021). Today, the global soybean market is valued at around $148 billion as of 2018 and is projected to grow with a CAGR of 4% during the period of 2019–2025 [19]. During the last decade, soybean and soybean bioactives have been increasingly investigated because of their anti-inflammatory properties in animal models of IBD [10][20]. Below we provide an overview of the bioactive compounds relevant to the macronutrient (lipid, carbohydrate, protein) and bioactive composition of soybean in the context of their effects in IBD. We summarize the beneficial effects of soy and the bioactive compounds derived from soy in context to gut inflammation in Table 1.

Table 1. Summary of bioactives and their effect on gut inflammation.

Bioactive

Effects

Mechanisms

Phosphatidylcholine

Blocks hydrophobic bacteria and hydrophilic antigens from entering the intestine; improves mucus layer integrity and mucus secretion; ↓ oxidative stress

Mechanisms not described in detail

Soyasaponins

Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory activity

Inhibit LPS binding to TLR4, NF-κB, and iNOS inhibition

Phytosterols

Anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effects; FXR antagonist (stigmasterol)

NF-κB inhibition and COX-2 downregulation

β-conglycinin and Glycin

Maintain intestinal mucosa integrity; improve epithelial cell growth; inhibit enteropathogen adhesion (E. coli, S. typhimurium and S. enteritidis); ↓ MPO

NF-kB/p65 inhibition

Lectin

Antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities; disrupt gut barrier function; induce local inflammatory responses; ↓ immunological response; interfere with the balance of the intestinal microbiota

By binding to small bowel epithelial cells; serving as a nutrient source of bacteria; altering the gut mucosal system

Lunasin

Suppresses LPS-induced inflammatory reactions in macrophage, decrease pro-inflammatory cytokine production

Suppress PGE2 via COX-2, and NF-κB inhibition

Equol

↓ NO production; antioxidant and estrogenic activity

Inhibition of iNOS mRNA expression, ↓ NF-kB activation

Bowman-Birk Inhibitor (BBI)

Anti-inflammatory activity in the gut; suppress oxidative stress; decrease pro- IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, and increase IL-10 in macrophages

Inhibition of serine proteases released from inflammation-mediating cells

Soy Oligosaccharides

Benefit immune function by promoting the metabolism of beneficial commensal gut bacteria; increase levels of SOD and IgG; promote splenocyte proliferation; increase abundance in SCFA-producing bacterial taxa

Enhanced T-lymphocyte and lymphocyte proliferation

Genistein

Inhibit TNF-ɑ-induced endothelial and vascular inflammation; improve cell viability and cellular permeability; convert M1 macrophages toward the M2 phenotype

Mediation of protein kinase pathway; NF-κB inhibition; activation of the JAK signal transduction and transcription (STAT) pathway

COX-2; cyclooxygenase, JAK; Janus kinase, LPS; lipopolysaccharide, MPO; myeloperoxidase, NO; nitric oxide, iNOS; nitric oxide synthase, NF-κB; nuclear factor kappa B, PGE2; prostaglandin E2, SCFA; short-chain fatty acid, SOD; supeoxide dismutase, STAT; signal transduction and activator of transcription, TLR; toll-like receptor-4; TNFα; tumor necrosis factor-alpha.

2.1. Soy Lipid Fraction

Soy lipids comprise 20% of its total weight, of which 46–64% is constituted by PUFAs. Soybean is rich in fatty acids, primarily the omega-6 (n-6) PUFA linoleic acid (LA, C18:2) bound to different types of phospholipids and which constitutes ~55% of soybean oil. Other fatty acids present in soybean oil include palmitic (C16:0), stearic (C18:0), oleic (C18:1), and linolenic (C18:3) [21][22].

The effect of dietary fat on inflammation in IBD depends on the type, and amount of dietary fat consumed [23]. Current evidence suggests that the ratio between dietary omega-3 (n-3) and n-6 PUFA intake is directly linked to the pathology of inflammation-mediated human diseases such as IBD, obesity, cancer, atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis [24]. For instance, diets high in saturated fat, particularly milk-fat, and/or excessive n-6 PUFAs (e.g., Western diet) exert a pro-inflammatory effect in IBD, the latter serving as a substrate for the production of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes. By contrast, n-3 fatty acids, namely alpha-linoleic acid (ALA; C18:3, n-3; plant oils), eicosapentaenoic (EPA; C20:5, n-3), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; C22:6, n-3) are generally considered anti-inflammatory, serving to displace arachidonic acid and decrease inflammatory response severity [25]; albeit findings have varied [23].

In this context, raw soybean oil is not considered as an anti-inflammatory therapeutic dietary supplement because of its fairly high saturated fat content and high n-6 to low n-3 PUFA content (7:1 ratio) [26]. However, other bioactive compounds, including phospholipids and soyasaponins contained within the lipid fraction of soybean, have indeed been shown to exert anti-inflammatory effects [10].

2.2. Soy Protein Fraction

Soybean comprised of ~35–40% protein based on the dry weight of a mature seed, is an easily digestible non-animal complete protein source (contains all nine essential amino acids, albeit low methionine content) that has a high Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score (DIAAS), on par with animal protein sources such as egg and dairy [21][27][28][29]. Because of this, soy has been used for decades in the food industry as an alternative protein and meat analogue and is one of the most used protein sources in many commercial laboratory rodent diets.

Beta-conglycinin and glycinin are the major source of soy proteins, accounting for ~65–80% of total proteins, and form the precursor of most peptides isolated from soybean. Of the various peptides, many have been shown to exert antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anticancer, antibacterial, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)-inhibitory, and insulin-modulating activities (reviewed in [21]). Minor proteins in soy with bioactive properties in IBD include lunasin, lectin, and Bowman–Birk protease inhibitors [21].

2.3. Soy Carbohydrate Fraction

The carbohydrate composition of soybean, comprising 9% dietary fiber from its total weight, consists mostly of oligosaccharides (‘soy oligosaccharides’), including stachyose, raffinose, sucrose, and common components formed by various linkages of mono- and oligosaccharides [30][31]. Raffinose and stachyose are non-digestible in the gut and thus remain intact until reaching the lower intestine, where they are metabolized by certain bacteria, which possess the alpha-galactosidase enzyme.

2.4. Soy-Derived Isoflavones

A class of phytochemicals, isoflavones, are plant-derived polyphenolic compounds found in a variety of legumes, including soy foods, with soybeans providing the richest source containing between 140–1530 mg/kg (vs. soy milk of 12–130 mg/kg) [32]. Of the 12 different of soybean-derived isoflavone isomers, the two major glycosidic forms associated with health benefits include: Daidzein (7-hydroxy-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4H-chromen-4-one) and genistein (4′, 5, 7 Trihydroxyisoflavone), where they comprise 40% and 50% of total isoflavone composition, respectively [33].

The physiological effects of isoflavones depend on their bioavailability, with the bioavailability of genistein being greater than that of daidzein [34]. In the small intestine, Bifidobacteria and lactic acid bacteria that possess β-glucosidase activity are able to hydrolyze isoflavone glucosides into aglycones (reviewed in [35]). The derived metabolites therein are either absorbed by the host or metabolized further in the colon by colonic bacteria into metabolites of various estrogenic potential, such as equol, O-desmethylangolensin, and p-ethylphenol [36][37][38][39]. These metabolites are then absorbed via the portal vein and can persist in plasma for ~24 h [40]. Isoflavones have been reported for their beneficial effect in cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, cancer, and alleviation of menopausal symptoms (reviewed in [41]).

Isoflavones are classified as phytoestrogens and exhibit both functional and structural similarities to the mammalian estradiol molecule, giving isoflavones their ‘estrogen-like’ activity via the estrogen receptor (ER) [39][42][43][44][45][46][47]. Although isoflavones bind to both α and β isoforms of ERs, there seems to be a preferential binding and activation of approximately 20 times towards ERβ than to ERα [42][43]. Notably, the predominant ER subtype expressed in colon tissues is ERβ, and it serves to maintain a normal epithelial architecture protecting against chronic colitis [48][49].

In recent decades, extensive epidemiological evidence, together with preclinical in vivo and in vitro studies, indicate that isoflavones also exert potent anti-inflammatory activity in a range of inflammatory diseases via increased antioxidative activities, NF-κB regulation, and reduced pro-inflammatory factors including enzymatic activity and cytokine levels (reviewed in [50][51]). The antioxidant activity of isoflavones is largely attributed to their inhibitory effect on the COX-2, an enzyme that mediates the conversion of arachidonic acid to pro-inflammatory prostaglandins. Prostaglandin is an important mediator in the inflammation process, and its synthesis is increased in inflamed tissues [52]. By comparison, raw soybean oil, which is void of isoflavones, has been shown to significantly raise the levels of arachidonic acid [53].

Numerous studies support the anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activity of soy isoflavones; however, their therapeutic role in human IBD remains largely unknown. Data from preclinical rodent studies suggest that the antioxidant activity of soy isoflavones occurs via the scavenging of free radicals, upregulation of antioxidant enzyme systems, and promotion of tight-junction protein expression and TLR4 signaling activity [48][49]. Diets containing high isoflavones contents showed consistent and significant elevation of antioxidant enzymes in various organs [54][55]. Fermented soy germ contains phytoestrogen that is similar to 17B-estradiol in women [49][56], which has been demonstrated to mitigate effects of IBD, such as decreased paracellular permeability and increased tight junction sealing [49][57]. In a partial restraint stress female Wistar rat model, the estrogenic and protease inhibitor properties of phytoestrogen-rich soy germ (34.7 µmol/gm of isoflavones vs. 17β-estradiol benzoate) were shown to prevent stress-induced intestinal hyperpermeability and hypersensitivity, although had no effect on plasma corticosterone [58].

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