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Bukhari, S.S.U.H. Mounted Load Carrying on Equids. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/9578 (accessed on 18 November 2024).
Bukhari SSUH. Mounted Load Carrying on Equids. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/9578. Accessed November 18, 2024.
Bukhari, Syed Saad Ul Hassan. "Mounted Load Carrying on Equids" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/9578 (accessed November 18, 2024).
Bukhari, S.S.U.H. (2021, May 12). Mounted Load Carrying on Equids. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/9578
Bukhari, Syed Saad Ul Hassan. "Mounted Load Carrying on Equids." Encyclopedia. Web. 12 May, 2021.
Mounted Load Carrying on Equids
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/ani11051333

There are approximately 112 million working equids in developing countries, many of which are associated with brick kilns. Brick kilns and overloading are associated with welfare problems in working equids. Understanding equids’ abilities and influencing factors are important for both effective performance and welfare. Traditionally, measurement of the amount of ‘bone’ was used, and more recently, gait symmetry has been identified as a potential marker for loading capacity.

blood chemistry donkey equid welfare horse limb biomechanics loading performance

1. Introduction

Horses (Equus caballus) and donkeys (Equus asinus) are ridden and used globally for pleasure, sport, and transport. Equids have always had an important role, especially in developing countries, in load-carrying [1][2], transport, draught, and agricultural production [3][4] (Figure 1). There are an estimated 112 million working equids in developing countries [5]. For example, countries that have large working equid populations include China, Mexico, Ethiopia, Pakistan, and India, with 15.1, 12.9, 9, 5.5, and 1.5 million working equids, respectively. The importance of working equids is well known, but no research has quantified the amount that they are worth to the economies of these countries [5]. Although their power has been superseded by machinery in many developed countries, they remain as relevant as technology in some regions of the world because animal power is cheaper and easier to maintain compared to motorized modern power [6].

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Figure 1. Working donkeys involved in the transportation of agricultural load (Lucerne and wheat straw) in central Punjab-Pakistan. Photo: Syed Saad Ul Hassan Bukhari.

Overworking and overloading have been reported as the most important issue in working horses and donkeys [7][8][9]. Overloading is defined as the weight with which gait rhythm is disrupted [10], leading to lameness and alteration of behavior [11]. Equines, especially donkeys, may be subject to overloading. This is a welfare concern [12] that requires improvement [1][2]. For ridden equids used for both work and pleasure, increased human bodyweight [11] is a potential welfare problem because people are getting heavier [13]. Obesity rates are increasing in human populations [14][15][16][17][18] as the prevalence of overweight adults increases, from 1981 to 1996, among men and women from 48% to 57% and 30% to 35%, respectively [15]. The increase in a rider’s weight (Figure 2) affects biomechanical, physiological, biochemical, and behavioral parameters of equids [10][11][19][20][21][22]. For working equids, carrying heavy loads is associated with increased income for their owners, leading to overloading by economic necessity [23].

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Figure 2. Horses with their riders: (a) A horse and a rider with BWR 11.96% in the UK. Photo: Mick Atkins; (b) A horse and a rider with BWR 24.21% in Faisalabad, Pakistan. Photo: Sabir Hussain.

The effect of a rider’s bodyweight (BW) on the health, performance, and welfare of horses is frequently debated in studies of horse-rider relationships [13]. Increased rider weight has a negative effect on biomechanical, physiological, biochemical, and behavioral parameters of horses during exercise [11][21][22][24]. The weight a horse can carry is important, and it depends upon a number of physical traits, including size, age, body condition score, body conformation, duration of work, third metacarpal bone circumference, type of work, and the intensity of the work to be performed [24]. Overall this subject is poorly studied [24], and most research has been undertaken on Icelandic horses, which are traditionally subjected to a high rider:horse bodyweight ratios as compared to larger Warmblood horses and are also exposed to higher exercise intensities than ordinary riding horses [25]. One factor that should be considered is that the impacts of mounted and harnessed loads are different, as the former is more energy demanding for a loaded trotting horse [26]. This explains why a horse moves slower carrying than pulling a given weight at a specific gait [27]. However, research results are conflicting [11][25], and many different measures have been used to assess weight carrying capacity [10][19][20][24][28], making direct comparisons between studies challenging.

Donkeys differ from horses in a number of biomechanical, physiological, biochemical, and behavioral respects, and they are often undervalued in the equine world [29]. For example, in comparison to horses, donkeys have closer limbs and more upright hooves and are more suited for movement over difficult terrain instead of moving at speed. Donkeys have straight backs, low withers, and slow and smooth paces, which make them ideal for load carrying [29], although donkeys have also been used for playing polo [30]. Donkeys have a steeper dorsal hoof wall angle [31], the frog is placed more caudally, and they have 25% higher mean integument depth at the level of the third phalanx as compared to horses [29]. Sick donkeys may not appear outwardly sick; instead, they may be stoic, depressed, dull, and show reduced interest towards their environment and companions [29]. Their ears are less mobile and show less response to noises. Most of the time, they lower their head below the withers in case of ill health [29]. Lameness in donkeys is difficult to assess because it is often subtle and, when laminitic, they do not show the classic ‘laminitcs stance’ that is seen in horses [29]. In addition to this, working donkeys are often reluctant to trot on demand, making assessing lameness harder [32]. These differences should be considered when comparing donkeys with horses. Not much research has been carried out on donkeys, and there is no accurate and science-based permissible load carrying limit for them. However, there is evidence that overloading in these animals is common and leads to significant welfare issues such as lameness and back pain [33]. To optimize equine welfare, people using equine power should understand their limitations. The efficient use of equines depends on understanding their capabilities for work, which can influence their optimum field performance. This review discusses the biomechanical, physiological, biochemical, and behavioral effects of loading in load-carrying equids.

The Role of Equids in Developing Countries

In developing countries, rural people rely on working equids in agriculture, construction, and transportation for both goods and people [5]. Equids play an important role in livelihoods in various countries [34], including Kenya [35], Nepal [12], Mexico, Ethiopia, India, Pakistan, and China [5]. In particular, a large number of working equids are owned by poor people engaged with brick production in India, being an important source of income for these landless people [36]. Brick kilns mostly rely on equids, but the sex and species of the equids vary between countries and brick kilns. In India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Nepal, around 380,000, 115,000, 6900, and 2200 animals work in the brick kiln industry, respectively [12].

There are a number of causes of poor working equine welfare, for example, high workload, improper shelter, food, water, handling (whipping and poor driving), harmful practices (nostril slitting), lack of supporting infrastructure (good farriers, saddlers, and healthcare), marginalisation, harsh environmental conditions, lack of inclusion in legal systems and program enforcement [5]. Overloading of equids is one of the many issues that may lead to reduced welfare, which is a global concern [37]. Brick kiln work appears to be associated with greater welfare problems in working equids compared to other sectors, although the severity, range, and patterns of welfare and health issues vary between countries and brick kilns within a country [12]. The welfare of working equids should be improved through collective actions of the equid-owning communities along with organizations supporting them [34][38][39].

Overloading is a problem in all sectors employing working equids, and it is common for equids to collapse under an overly heavy load of bricks [12]. Overloading leads to sprains, back sores, wounds, fractures, and other irreparable injuries in working equids [12], decreasing their work output and reducing their contribution to rural livelihoods [8]. Most of the work of horses and donkeys consists of the transportation of dry and wet bricks from a brick kiln to their destination (Figure 3). In India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Nepal, donkeys carry 100–120 kg, 120–135 kg, 125–150 kg, and 60–80 kg (on average) of bricks on their back during a single trip, respectively [12]. For comparison, the mean live weight of Pakistani donkeys is 115 kg (range, 67–153 kg) [40] and the weight of indigenous Indian donkeys ranges between 110–142 kg [28]. Every day, equids carry tons of weight, which likely exceeds their natural weight carrying capacity. This is a welfare concern, and this situation becomes further undesirable due to poor management and husbandry practices leading to musculoskeletal issues [5]. Lack of knowledge and understanding about brick kilns and working equids is mainly due to insufficient research and lack of scientific data; existing data is confusing and mainly extracted from related research that cannot be directly applied to working equines [12].

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Figure 3. Brick kiln donkeys involved in the transportation of bricks in southern Punjab, Pakistan. Photo: Syed Saad Ul Hassan Bukhari.

2. Physiological Effects of Loading

Physiological indicators such as heart rate [21][24][28][41][42], rectal temperature [21][28][41], respiratory rate [21][28], hematocrit [21][28], cost of energy [43][44], and muscle factors [24][45] have been studied in relation to the loading capabilities of horses and donkeys. However, the number of studies is not sufficient for detailed knowledge of the effect of load on physiological parameters of equids. Compared to horses, donkeys have different resting body temperature (36.5–37.7 °C), heart rate (31–53 beats/min.), and respiration rate (13–31 breaths per min) ranges. Moreover, normal respiration rates change with changes in workload and environmental temperature. When compared to horses, donkeys’ red blood cells and packed cell volume are normally lower, whereas mean corpuscular volume is higher in donkeys [29]. Most of the studies (on the impact of loading) are done on horses, and data from them may not be applicable to working donkeys.

Generally, heart rate increases with higher loads [41][42]. This change is often linear [21], and an increase of 54–59 beats/minutes occurs with a load of 25–30% BW of the horse [24]. Smaller increases in the mounted weight from 12–23% of the horse’s bodyweight do not result in a significant alteration in heart rate during a five-minute and twenty-second exercise test [25]. In donkeys walking at speeds of 0.42 to 0.55 ms−1 (for a maximum duration of 6 h), pulse rate increases by 18.87, 21.44, and 20.38 (min−1) with increasing mounted load from 40%, 50%, and 66% BW, respectively. However, the pulse rate again decreased with a load of 66% BW [28]. The ability to regain normal heart rate (resting heart rate) shortly after exercise is an important tool for equine fitness assessment [46] and may be a more accurate measure of load-carrying capacity than absolute heart rate. The type of load carried does not appear to affect heart rate, with no difference between horses carrying a rider and an equivalent weight in lead, which may reflect a minimal influence of the rider on the horse’s physiological response while exercising [42], although how the rider sits can influence performance at high speeds [47].

In the process of converting stored energy into mechanical energy during exercise, horses are inefficient and lose 80% of their stored energy as heat. Moreover, they have a high metabolic capacity and relatively small surface area to dissipate heat [48]. Horses show no change in rectal temperature while increasing mounted load from 10% BW to 20% BW [41], but an increase in rectal temperature occurs as weight is increased from 20% to 35% BW [21]. A rise of 0.3 °C, 0.2 °C, and 0.1 °C superficial temperature of the back of the trunk, front of the trunk, and neck of horses occur with an increase in load to 20% BW as compared to 10% [41], but it has been shown that cow’s superficial temperature decreases in acute stress conditions [49]. Donkeys show an increase in rectal temperature of 1.63 °C, 1.03 °C, and 1.77 °C with mounted loads of 40%, 50%, and 66% bodyweight, working at speeds of 0.42 to 0.55 ms−1 (for a maximum duration of 6 h), respectively [28].

In Icelandic horses under mounted load, respiration rate increases linearly with increasing load. An increase of 39 to 86 breaths/minute has been noted with an increase in mounted load from 20% to 35% BW [21]. Breathing frequency during exercise is limited by stride frequency at a gallop; therefore, breathing is important for post-exercise catch-up in Thoroughbred racehorses [50]. In donkeys, an increase in respiration rate by 28.86, 23.62, and 25.37 breaths/minute has been seen from pre-work to post-work with a mounted load of 40%, 50%, and 66% BW, respectively. However, post-work change among the three loading groups was not significant [28]. This relationship between respiration rate and mounted load suggests that the maximum permissible load in donkeys is not 50% BW, and assessing the permissible load via the post-work responses may be a more valid approach to estimating load-carrying capacity in some instances.

It is well known that exercise, irrespective of its type, changes the blood parameters of horses [51][52] and donkeys [28]. In horses, mounted weight does not have any effect on hematocrit (Hct) percentage apart from being reduced (Hct = 45%) after exercise with a 20% BW load as compared with a 35% BW load. However, this change usually reverts back to normal within 30 min (Hct = 36) after exercise in Icelandic horses [21]. Donkeys differ [29], because their hematocrit (%) increased by 3.18, 2.95, and 6.82, hemoglobin (g/dL) increased by 1.59, 1.58, and 1.72, red blood cells (million/mm3) increased by 0.83, 0.8, and 0.95 while white blood cells (×1000/mm3) increased by 1.99, 2.02, and 2.91 after work (for a maximum duration of 6 h) with 40%, 50%, and 66% BW ratio, respectively [28]. In horses, following exercise, adrenaline causes the release of erythrocytes from the spleen into general circulation [53]. It is likely that a similar mechanism occurs in donkeys, but differences between horses and donkeys in the context of loading have yet to be investigated.

In horses, loading increases the metabolic cost of transport. For example, the addition of 85 kg load, which represented 19% of bodyweight, increased metabolic rate by 18% [44]. However, some studies in humans were unable to detect an increase in metabolic rate with vertical loading from 5% to 10% bodyweight [54]. Interestingly, the energy cost of carrying a load per unit weight of load decreases with increasing weight. In horses, the energy cost is 5.8, 3.8, and 3.7 joules per kilogram per minute, while in donkeys, the energy cost is 6.5, 4.4, and 3.0 joules per kilogram load per minute, for the weights of 13, 20, and 27 kg/100 kg live weight, respectively. There is no difference between horses and donkeys [43]. Moreover, the cost of energy per unit load is the same whether weight is of additional load or the body alone [55] and an increase in speed causes increased energy consumption as compared to carrying a heavy load [56].

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