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Chen, C. Morus alba: Functional Food Potential. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/8577 (accessed on 17 December 2025).
Chen C. Morus alba: Functional Food Potential. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/8577. Accessed December 17, 2025.
Chen, Centhyea. "Morus alba: Functional Food Potential" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/8577 (accessed December 17, 2025).
Chen, C. (2021, April 11). Morus alba: Functional Food Potential. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/8577
Chen, Centhyea. "Morus alba: Functional Food Potential." Encyclopedia. Web. 11 April, 2021.
Morus alba: Functional Food Potential
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/foods10030689

Morus alba L. (M. alba) is a highly adaptable mulberry plant that is extensively incorporated in many traditional and Ayurveda medications. Various parts of the plant, such as leaves, fruits, and seeds, possess nutritional and medicinal value. This context reports on the nutrients and bioactive compounds available in M. alba leaves, fruit, and seeds; its nutraceutical properties, functional properties as an ingredient in foodstuffs and microencapsulation technique to enhance polyphenol stability.

 

Morus alba bioactive compounds functional food ingredients

1. Introduction

Morus alba Linn (M. alba), also known as white mulberry, belongs to the Moraceae family[1]. It is a small deciduous tree cultivated in various tropical, subtropical, and temperate countries[2][3]. M. alba contains abundant bioactive compounds, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, flavonols, anthocyanins, macronutrients, vitamins, minerals, and volatile aromatic compounds[4][5]. Many traditional medicines incorporate M. alba fruit, leaves, roots, branches, and bark in Ayurveda medication systems due to their health benefits and antioxidants[6]. With their demonstrated nutrition and health benefits, M. alba leaves and fruit can be considered as suitable ingredients to contribute to a broader application of functional foods. Therefore, this entry aims to discuss the nutritional and phytochemical properties of M. alba leaves, fruit, and seeds and their potential as food ingredients for developing novel and functional foods to enrich human nutrition.

2. Nutrients and Phytochemical Compositions of Morus alba

People consume mulberry species in various countries due to their nutritiousness, deliciousness, nontoxicity, and abundant active benefits. The leaves of M. alba species are rich in protein, carbohydrates, fiber, and vitamins, especially ascorbic acid and β-carotene[7]. Studies have found that the leaves contain a high amount of important minerals such as calcium (Ca), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), but low level of sodium (Na)[8]. The leaves also contain a considerable amount of organic acids, including citric acid (0.26–3.85 mg/g FW), malic acid (7.37–12.49 mg/g FW), tartaric acid (0.085–0.212 mg/g FW), succinic acid (1.02–5.67 mg/g FW), lactic acid (0.29–0.83 mg/g FW), fumaric acid (0.058–0.39 mg/g FW), and acetic acid (0.029–0.1 mg/g FW), which contribute to the potential health benefits of M. alba leaves[9]. Besides, flavonoids (rutin, quercetin, apigenin, etc.) are the essential bioactive compounds with excellent antioxidant properties found in M. alba leaves. Studies have found 10 known compounds along some new compounds from the leaves including kaempferol-7-O-glucoside, quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside-7-O-glucoside, quercetin 3-O-β-glucoside-7-O-α-rhamnoside, moracinflavan A-G, and moracinfurol A and B[10][11]. Chlorogenic, gallic, vanillic, p-hydroxybenzoic, syringic, p-coumaric, protocatechuic, ferulic, and m-coumaric acids were identified as the leaves’ major phenolic acids[4][12]

In addition, M. alba fruit contained higher protein content (10.15–13.33%) than other berries species, which contribute significantly to protein’s recommended dietary allowance (RDA)[5][13]. Results on their richer phenolic- and volatile-compound content, as well as better antioxidant capacity than other berry species like blueberry, strawberry, blackberry, and raspberry have also been reported[14]. Previous studies have found 25 phenolic compounds in the fruits, consisting of cinnamic acid derivatives (0.36–1.29 mg/g DW), flavonols (0.07–0.36 mg/g DW), anthocyanins (not quantified), and benzoic acid derivatives (0.81–2.33 mg/g DW); while caffeoylquinic acids (CQAs) lower than in the leaves were detected (0.16–3.62 mg/g DW and 6.78–8.48 mg/g DW, respectively)[4]. Also, a total of 35 volatile compounds categorized into aldehydes, esters, ketones, benzene terpenes, and oxygenated terpenes have been reported from the leaves[15]. Flavonols, flavonoids, anthocyanins, hydroxynamic acids, and benzoic acids as the significant polyphenol composition in M. alba fruit[16].

On the other hand, M. alba seeds alone are barely researched, as they are tiny and incorporated in fruit analysis. Nonetheless, analysis have eventually quantified several polyphenolic compounds in M. alba seeds with caffeic acid (1.66 mg/g), 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid (1.57 mg/g), rutin (1.54 mg/g), and cyaniding-3-rutinoside (1.30 mg/g) as the major compounds[17]. Some other compounds includes 4-prenylmoracin, quercitri), (+)-dihydroquercetin, quercetin, isoquercitrin, chlorogenic acid, moracin, procatechuic acid, and (+)-dihydrokaempferol and trans-resveratrol[18]. Studies have also shown that M. alba fruit seeds were rich in carbohydrates, fatty acids, and protein[19][20][21]. A high total tocopherol content of about 2031.20–2393.63 mg/kg, mostly comprising δ-tocopherol, γ-tocopherol, β-tocopherol, and α-tocopherol were determined[19][22]. The seed oil also possess high antioxidative, total phenolic content and total flavonoid content. Furthermore, M. alba seed oil was rich in essential fatty acids, including linoleic acid (75.83–81.1%), palmitic acid (7.96–9.51%), oleic acid (5.64–10.38%), stearic acid (3.45–5.01%), linolenic acid (0.41–80.6%), and myristic acid (0.07%)[19][22]. Based on the capacity of M. alba seeds in oil form, it has a high potential, especially as a fat substitute in food and nonfood applications.

These abundant natural bioactive compounds have contributed to M. alba potent biological activities and their excellent pharmacological effects against various diseases. These include antioxidative, diuretic, antiobesity, hypoglycemic, hypotensive, anticholesterol, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial properties[23][24]. Moreover, the high quantity of phenolic compounds and nutrition also contributes to M. alba’s functional properties in food applications.

3. Functional Ingredients in Food Applications

Recently, M. alba leaves have been drank as herbal tea, especially in Asian countries[4]. The bitterness of this tea was found to be positively correlated with the content of TPC and TFC in the leaves and their radical-scavenging abilities[25]. The leaves’ high content of crude protein, total phenolic, and DNJ indicated their health properties and potential as ingredients in the food industry[26]. In M. alba leaves-added paratha, increase in the dough’s protein levels, fat, ash, polyphenol, DPPH, ABTS, and Fe3+-reducing and chelating capabilities were seen[27]. However, decrease in polyphenolic compounds (by 0.16–0.21%) and DPPH activity (by 22–34.6%) occurred upon frying due to polyphenol heat-induced degradation[28], while ABTS scavenging, Fe3+ reduction and Fe3+ chelation increased due to Maillard-reaction products (MRPs) that allowed metal chelation to inhibit oxidation( by 1.4–6.6%, 1.3–2.9% and 247.5–4906.3%, respectively)[29]. Further studies on commercial-range parathas, such as the frozen and the ready-to-cook forms, are more convenient alternatives, and the cooking method should be revised to limit the loss of mulberry’s functional activities.

Moreover, addition of 15% M. alba leaf powder (MLP) in pig’s diet have benefited the pork quality as such, decreased in the levels of backfat, shear force, lower cooking, and drip loss; but increased level of inosinic acid, intramuscular fat value, pH, meat color value, and antioxidative capacity were reported[30][31]. However, the 15% MLP also caused adverse effects on the pig’s growth, as it reduced its average daily gain, feed efficiency, carcass weight, and dressing percentage. On the contrary, 15% MLP was the most promising concentration to maintain lambs’ growth, intake, and carcass performance; alleviate oxidative stress; improved blood metabolites; and improved quality of the longissimus lumborum muscle (redness)[32]. Despite the nonsignificant effect on the meat’s pH, elevation of the mRNA expressions of Cu/Zn SOD and GPx against lipid peroxidation implied the ability of MLP to enhance lamb meat’s redness, quality, and shelf life. Moreover, M. alba leaves extracts maintained refrigerated beef’s color by prevention of oxymyoglobin and metmyoglobin oxidation. Leaves extract also significantly reduced the values of peroxide and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), and increased the superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities during beef storage, which suggested that mulberry leaves were able to reduce the lipid oxidation reaction[33]. Although, further research is needed to find a suitable MLP dietary level with a lower negative impact on pig growth, and a longer observation period is required to find the maximum capability of M. alba leaf extract on meat quality and preservation, to ensure the appropriate amount needed for the desired shelf life to prevent the food-processing industry from economic losses.

M. alba fruit, on the other hand, is a good source of pectin (4.75–7%), which has a wide range of food-industry applications as an emulsifier, thickener, stabilizer, gelling agent, and a fat or sugar replacement in low-calorie foods[34]. Currently, M. alba fruit is used in cooking, baking, and for dessert purposes due to its sweet taste and attractive bright color cyanidin and delphinidin glycoside anthocyanins that possess high FRAP and DPPH antioxidant activities[35][36]. Recent study obtained 16 types of anthocyanin with total value of 0.95–28.61 mg/g DW. Among them, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside were the two significant anthocyanins in M. alba fruit, possessing antioxidant anti-inflammatory properties[35]. The significant effect of proanthocyanidin as antimicrobial in the gastrointestinal tract and inhibition of sugar-, protein-, and fat-uptake-related enzymes are well known[37]. Hence, making M. alba a valuable ingredient in products targeting calories-concerned individuals.

Furthermore, the investigation of M. alba fruit’s polyphenolic compounds (MFPs) in dried minced pork slices (DMPS) revealed a dose-dependent antioxidative activity during processing and storage[38]. The MFPs effectively inhibited oxidation of muscle protein and oxidation-induced texture deterioration, and reduced the DMPS hardness during heating and storage. MFP also significantly inhibited aerobic bacteria growth on DMPS and masked the odor and flavor of pork. Moreover, MFPs at 1.0 g/kg provided protection against lipid- and protein oxidation-induced damage, based on the lower TBARS and carbonyl contents, yet at a higher level of sulfhydryl than sausages without MFPs. Aside from the effective control of volatile base nitrogen (TVB-N) and microbial stability, MFPs also significantly reduced residual nitrite, which indirectly reduced the production of carcinogenic nitrosamine, causing MFPs to be trusted in Cantonese sausage biosafety[39]. However, as the end product possess slight unfavorable color defect, further research using the antioxidant function for better sensory and quality properties should be prioritized.

Besides, the addition of M. alba leaf and fruit extracts into rape honey has enriched their antioxidant activity by 70- and 7-fold, respectively, whereas in leaves-enriched creamed honey elevations of α-glucosidase and β-galactosidase occurred. The addition of M. alba, especially the leaves, have reduced about 50% of diastase, suggesting their inhibitory effect against carbohydrate-hydrolyzing enzymes[40]. Reports have also stated that M. alba leaves and fruit extracts could be used as natural food fortifiers in bread, as they enhanced the nutrition level, bioactive compounds, and antiradical activity without negatively influencing the bread’s sensory and microbiological qualities[41]. Regardless, a broader food-variety study, concise shelf-life of products, and analysis of M. alba extracts’ effects, abilities, and best preservation of shelf-life are some aspects for further exploration.

In addition, M. alba can also be exploited as essential oil which is commonly utilized in several industries, including the food industry, as functional flavoring substances due to their health benefits. Some volatile compounds found in M. alba leaves EOs with noteworthy biological effects, such as terpenoids, phytol, heptacosane, hexahydrofamesyl acetone, hexadeconic acids, β-bisabolene, carotenoid derivatives, and geranyl acetone[42][43]. The high flavor and volatile compounds in the leaf EOs could offer antioxidant[44], antifungal[45] and antibacterial[46] effects in medicine when utilized as a flavorer, fragrance enhancer, antimicrobial agent, and food preservative for pulses, grains, cereals, fruits, and vegetables in the food industry[47]. Meanwhile, rich fatty-acid contents were obtained from M. alba-fruit-derived oil which includes linoleic acids (58.89% DW), palmitic acids (12.46% DW), oleic acids (11.87% DW), and stearic acids (5.67% DW)[48]. On the other hand, M. alba seed oil contained high content of total phenolics, total flavonoids, tocopherols (1644.70–2012.27 mg/kg oil), and fatty acids, especially linoleic acid, an omega-6 PUFA usable as a blood-vessel cleaner to decrease serum cholesterol and inhibit arterial thrombosis formation[49]. The seeds oil also revealed high DPPH (62–72%), ABTS (0.026–0.072 mmol/g), and FRAP (0.15–0.68 mmol Fe2+/g) abilities, proven by the strong correlation between total phenolic content with DPPH and FRAP (r = 0.965 and r = 0.951, respectively)[50]. Overall, the oil derived from M. alba leaves, fruit, and seeds contains many beneficial compounds and is potentially applicable in the food industry as a functional food ingredient. However, the studies and data on M. alba-derived EOs and oils are still lacing to solidify their potentiality in any industry.

3.1. Microencapsulation of Morus alba

The poor stability, and heat and light sensitivity of phenolic compounds are a widely known weakness of polyphenols[51]. Evidence have shown that the stability of M. alba polyphenols can be destroyed by environmental factors, including pH, temperature, and oxygen[52]. Hence, limits their commercial applications, especially for hot-processed foods[53]. Microencapsulation is an effective technique to ameliorate the unstable physiochemical properties of a substance, including their solubility and dispensability[54]. M. alba polyphenol (MP) stability in dried minced pork slices was significantly enhanced after gum Arabic and β-cyclodextrin microencapsulation[52][53]. After 20 days of storage, the microencapsulated polyphenol (MMP) pork slices showed lower loss of total phenolic, flavonoid, and anthocyanin contents (15.10%, 16.87%, and 19.88%, respectively), with higher recovery (by 1.35-fold, 1.26-fold, and 1.16-fold, respectively)[52]. Also, both MP and MMP exhibited a synergistic inhibitory effect on protein and lipid oxidation, with MMP showing better oxidation and color stability. Furthermore, as compared to the control, the MP-added pork slices showed 1.03-fold higher FRAP and 1.18-fold higher ABTS▪+ scavenging ability, whereas the β-cyclodextrin MMP showed 1.2-fold and 3.58-fold increases, respectively[53]. Under the optimized parameters, the processing stability of MMP, including the thermal, light, and storage stabilities, were significantly enhanced. Simultaneously, the encapsulation efficiencies of MMP for total polyphenol, flavonoid, and anthocyanin contents were higher than 97%, thus verifying the success of MP encapsulation in ameliorating the unstable properties of M. alba’s polyphenols[51]. However, detailed laboratory measurements with evaluations of color and sensory characteristics should be the focus of future studies. Moreover, the bioavailability of MMP and its synergistic inhibitory effect on protein and lipid oxidation in functional meat products must be further studied in larger-scale production to accommodate MMP integration at the commercial scale.

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Subjects: Plant Sciences
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