Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Dimitrios Moris
 + 3591 word(s) 3591 2021-03-26 04:43:39 |
2 format correct
Karina Chen
 Meta information modification 3591 2021-03-29 03:57:54 | |
3 format correct
Karina Chen
 Meta information modification 3591 2021-04-15 10:12:06 |

Video Upload Options

We provide professional Video Production Services to translate complex research into visually appealing presentations. Would you like to try it?
No, upload directly Yes

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Moris, D. Pancreatic Cancer Biomarkers. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/8289 (accessed on 16 November 2024).
Moris D. Pancreatic Cancer Biomarkers. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/8289. Accessed November 16, 2024.
Moris, Dimitrios. "Pancreatic Cancer Biomarkers" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/8289 (accessed November 16, 2024).
Moris, D. (2021, March 26). Pancreatic Cancer Biomarkers. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/8289
Moris, Dimitrios. "Pancreatic Cancer Biomarkers." Encyclopedia. Web. 26 March, 2021.
Pancreatic Cancer Biomarkers
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/cancers13051071

Biomarkers are important tools to diagnose cancer, to determine prognosis, and to select appropriate treatment. 

pancreatic cancer pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma biomarkers predictive markers prognostic markers

1. CA 19-9: Diagnostic and Prognostic Role

Carbohydrate antigen 19-9 (CA 19-9) has been classically used in the diagnosis of pancreatic cancer, and its usefulness has been extensively evaluated [1]. Goonetilleke et al., in their systematic review, assessed the median sensitivity and specificity of CA 19-9 in symptomatic patients and reported values of 79% and 82%, respectively [2].

The composite marker of increased CA 19-9, weight loss, and hyperbilirubinemia had 100% specificity and positive predictive value in patients undergoing surgery for suspected pancreatic malignancy [3]. Van Manen et al. reported a 91.4% positive predictive value of combined carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) (>7.0 ng/mL) and CA 19-9 (>305 U/mL) in predicting the presence of advanced PDAC [4].

The preoperative elevation of CA 19-9 in patients with resectable tumors has been associated with a decreased overall survival [5]. Both postoperative decreases in serum CA 19-9 and postoperative CA 19-9 < 200 U/mL are strongly associated with survival. In addition, preoperative CA 19-9 levels are lower in patients without nodal disease (N0) and an earlier stage of disease compared to patients with positive nodes or an advanced disease, respectively [6]. Berardi et al. reported a significantly higher overall survival in patients who received chemotherapy for locally advanced or metastatic pancreatic cancer and had CA 19-9 ≤ 37 U/mL compared to patients with CA 19-9 > 37 U/mL (18.49 vs. 9.21 months, respectively) [7].

Serum CA 19-9 is not useful as a screening tool in asymptomatic patients due to its low positive predictive value that ranges between 0.5 and 0.9% [8][9]. CA 19-9 levels may increase in nonmalignant hepatobiliary and pancreatic diseases such as acute cholangitis, acute pancreatitis, acute liver cirrhosis as well as malignancies such as cholangiocarcinoma, ovarian cancer, and colorectal cancer [10][11][12][13][14][15]. In addition, 5–10% of the population are negative for the sialyl Lewis epitope, and, if affected by pancreatic cancer, CA 19-9 (sialyl Lewis a) is absent and of no diagnostic use in these individuals [16][17].

2. microRNAs: Diagnostic and Prognostic Role

MicroRNAs (miRNA) are non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level through interaction with target mRNAs at the 3′ untranslated region (3′ UTR) and the induction of mRNA degradation [18]. These molecules have been detected in various body fluids, such as serum, saliva, breast milk/colostrum, urine, and peritoneal cavity fluid, and they have recently emerged as potential cancer biomarkers [18][19].

Bloomston et al. showed that PDAC tissue has a distinct miRNA expression profile that can distinguish it from normal pancreatic tissue and chronic pancreatitis. Furthermore, they identified a group of six miRNAs (miR-452, miR-105, miR-127, miR-518a-2, miR-187, and miR-30a-3p) that could classify patients with nodal disease into long-term (>24 months) or short-term survivors (<24 months). In the same study, miR-196a-2 was found to be associated with a poor survival [20].

Yang et al. reported a similar pattern in miRNA derived from pancreatic fluid/tumor tissue and stool between patients with PDAC versus chronic pancreatitis or normal pancreatic tissue. PDAC patients had higher miR-21 and miR-155 and lower mir-216 expression compared to chronic pancreatitis or normal controls [21].

Urine miRNAs have also demonstrated efficacy as non-invasive biomarkers of PDAC. Patients with a stage I disease predominantly express miR-143, miR-223, and miR-30e at higher levels than the healthy population and miR-143, miR-223 and miR-204 at higher levels than patients with a stage II–IV disease. In addition, miR-223 and miR-204 have been reported to distinguish between early stage PDAC and chronic pancreatitis [22].

3. DNA Methylation Patterns: Diagnostic and Prognostic Role

DNA methylation is a process mediated by the DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) enzymes that results in the modification of cytosine residues through the addition of a methyl side group and the formation of 5-methylcytosine [23][24]. DNA methylation is a critical process that promotes the development of malignant cells through the activation of oncogenes and the inactivation of tumor suppressor genes [25]. The DNA methylation pattern in cfDNA, pancreatic secretions, or brush samples is a biomarker with significant potential due to the early occurrence of this modification in carcinogenesis, the long-term preservation of methylated DNA molecules in fixed samples, its widespread presence in tissues and body secretions, and its cell and tissue specificity [24]. The methylation of genes CD1D and NDRG4 identified in pancreatic secretions has been associated with approximately 70% or higher sensitivity and 90% specificity in terms of discrimination between pancreatic cancer and normal pancreas or chronic pancreatitis [26]. Matsubayashi et al. reported a sensitivity of >90% for the detection of pancreatic cancer in patients with methylated NPTX2 and SPARC genes in pancreatic secretion-derived DNA, whereas the methylation of Cyclin D2 and SARP2 genes demonstrated a sensitivity of approximately 82% [27]. Similarly, Parsi et al. investigated the presence of three methylated genes (cyclin D2, NPTX2, and TFPI2) in endoscopic brush samples and reported a positivity of 73.2% in PDAC patients compared to 13.6% in patients with benign biliary disease [28].

An analysis of promoter methylated genes in the circulating cfDNA of PDAC patients revealed a significantly decreased survival in patients with >10 hypermethylated genes compared to patients with <10 hypermethylated genes [29]. Specifically, the hypermethylation of SFRP1, BMP3, and TFPI2 detected in cfDNA has been significantly associated with poor prognosis in stage IV PDAC patients. The aforementioned genes are involved in multiple pathways and cellular functions that affect carcinogenesis, including the Wnt pathway (SFRP1), the TGF-β pathway (BMP3), and cell adhesion (TFPI2) [29].

4. Mismatch Repair Genes and Microsatellite Instability: Diagnostic and Predictive Role

Microsatellites are short sequences (up to six base pairs) that are present in repetitive patterns throughout the genomic DNA. The deficient function of the mismatch repair proteins (MMRs), which identify and repair errors in DNA base insertion or deletion, results in mutations that affect the integrity of microsatellite DNA [30]. Cancers deficient in MMR are significantly less likely to have mutations in usual pancreatic cancer genes such as KRAS and mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 4 (SMAD4) but are more likely to have mutations in genes that generate cancers with microsatellite instability like ACV2RA and JAK1 [31]. Microsatellite instability has recently emerged as a potential biomarker associated with both diagnostic and predictive applications. Pancreatic malignancies have microsatellite instability at a frequency of 0.5–1% and a deficiency of mismatch repair proteins in 0.8–1.6% [30][32][33][34][35]. Interestingly, microsatellite instability has been recently associated with a mucinous PDAC histologic subtype [34].

Patients with PDAC and microsatellite instability had been reported to have a significantly prolonged survival in the presence of microsatellite instability compared to patients without mismatch repair deficiency (62 months vs. 10 months, respectively; p = 0.011) [36]. In contrast, Lupinacci and colleagues investigated 445 PDAC specimens and reported similar median disease-free (21.4 months vs. 15.6 months; p = 0.703) and overall survival rates (35.1 vs. 29.2; p = 0.663) between patients with and without microsatellite instability [34]. Ottenhof et al. analyzed 78 PDAC specimens and reported that the expression of mismatch repair proteins (MLH1, MSH2, MSH6, and PMS2) was not associated with prognosis [37].

The KEYNOTE clinical trial demonstrated a benefit of the immune checkpoint inhibitor pembrolizumab (objective response rate: 34.3%) in patients with unresectable or metastatic non-colorectal malignancies, including pancreatic tumors, with microsatellite instability identified in biopsy specimens [38]. In addition, PDAC patients with metastatic disease and mismatch repair gene mutations have been reported to have promising results in terms of the median overall survival (16.5 months) with systemic chemotherapy treatment [39]. In contrast, Riazy et al. reported a survival benefit in PDAC patients with adequate mismatch repair functionality treated with 5-fluorouracil or gemcitabine, while there was no difference between treated and untreated mismatch repair deficient patients [40].

5. KRAS Mutations: Diagnostic and Prognostic Role

Mutations of the KRAS gene are commonly identified in PDAC tumors (~90%) and represent an early molecular event in the pathogenesis of pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasias and adenocarcinomas by being involved in tumor progression and maintenance [32][41][42][43][44][45]. KRAS mutations are identified in both fine-needle aspiration-derived tissue DNA and circulating cfDNA from patients with PDAC, with a concordance of 77.3% between the detection methods [46]. Patients with the KRAS mutation in cfDNA were found to have a significantly shorter survival compared to patients without KRAS mutations [46]. KRAS mutations detected in PDAC tissue samples have been associated with the poorer survival of patients across all stages [47]. Specific KRAS mutations (KrasG12D and KrasG12V) have been identified as independent survival prognostic markers, and the KrasG12V mutation has been associated with increased levels of regulatory T cells and worse prognosis [48]. Lee et al. reported that the detection of circulating tumor cfDNA (identified through KRAS gene mutations), pre- and post-operatively, was associated with an increased risk of disease recurrence and a significantly worse overall survival compared to PDAC patients with non-detectable cfDNA [49]. Recently, a KRAS imbalance was linked to disease stage, with major imbalance favoring mutant KRAS expression to be found in metastatic rather than primary pancreatic tumors [50].

6. Exosomes: Diagnostic and Prognostic Role

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles derived from cells, and their diameter ranges between 50 and 150 nm. Cargo within endosomes includes a variety of biomarkers, such as disease-specific RNA molecules, proteins, DNA, and signaling molecules. Exosomes mediate both local and remote intercellular communication processes. Their role is important in pathophysiologic processes, including inflammation and cancer growth and spread, through angiogenesis, stromal cell activation, extracellular matrix remodeling, and immunosuppression [51][52].

Exosomes are currently being investigated as screening and diagnostic biomarkers due to their high-level secretion and circulation in patients with cancer and their tumor-specific cargo (disease-specific RNAs and proteins). Cancer cells secrete 10× more exosomes in comparison to normal cells, and an analysis of tumor-derived exosomes can provide important tumor profile related information [53]. These extracellular vesicles have been utilized as potential diagnostic markers in various malignancies (breast cancer, lung cancer, colorectal cancer, and hepatocellular carcinoma) [54][55][56][57].

In patients with PDAC, circulating exosomes can be used to identify specific DNA mutations, to determine prognosis, and to select appropriate treatment modalities. DNA mutations involved in PDAC pathogenesis (KRAS and TP53) are detectable in exosomal DNA derived from PDAC patient serum and in a higher frequency compared to that reported for KRAS mutations detected in cfDNA. Nevertheless, circulating mutant KRAS has been detected in healthy tissue samples, and the liquid biopsy findings should be carefully interpreted [58][59].

Glypican-1 (GPC-1) is a protein previously reported to be overexpressed in PDAC and plays an important role in signal transduction initiated by mitogenic molecules (HB-EGF, FGF-2 and TGF-β) [60][61][62]. Glypican is a heparan sulfate proteoglycan that is connected to the cell membrane through a glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor [52]. GPC-1 overexpression has been associated with perineural invasion in PDAC and is an independent prognostic factor of worse survival [63]. Exosomal GPC-1 has recently emerged as a marker with the potential to detect early stage PDAC and differentiate between benign and malignant pancreatic disease [64]. GPC-1+ exosomes levels are correlated with tumor burden and are associated with survival. An analysis of GPC-1+ exosomes in mice with PDAC showed that it could effectively detect intraepithelial lesions, even in the presence of negative MRI [53][64].

Exosomal miRNA has also been investigated as a potential biomarker of PDAC. Exosomal miR-17-5 has been found in higher levels in PDAC patients and has been associated with the progression, advanced stage, and metastasis of PDAC [65]. In addition, serum exosomal miR-1246, miR-3976, miR-4306, and miR-4644 as well as salivary exosomal miR-1246 and miR-4644, have been identified at higher levels in PDAC patients [66].

7. Circulating Tumor Cells: Diagnostic and Prognostic Role

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) have been evaluated as diagnostic and survival prognostic markers in patients with PDAC [67]. Peripheral CTCs represent cells originating from the primary lesion that may be undetectable by imaging tests and non-accessible to biopsy with imaging guidance [68]. CTCs have been identified by cytology or KRAS mutation detection in PDAC patients with localized, locally invasive, and metastatic tumors [69]. Nevertheless, CTC isolation is a challenging process, and there is a high variability in CTC detection methods [69]. A recent meta-analysis by Zhu et al. investigated the diagnostic role of CTCs in PDAC and revealed a pooled sensitivity of 74% and a pooled specificity of 83% [70]. A meta-analysis by Wang et al. revealed that CTC-positive patients have shorter overall survival and progression-free survival rates compared to CTC-negative patients [71].

8. PAM4/MUC5AC: Diagnostic Role

PAM4 (clivatuzumab) is a monoclonal antibody with a high specificity for PDAC detection, even at early stages, and a high discriminatory ability between normal or benign pancreatic tissue and early stage PDAC, including pancreatic intraepithelial or intraductal mucinous neoplasms [72]. PAM4 reacts with the epitope mucin 5AC (MUC5AC), which is a highly expressed and secreted mucin of PDAC, and can be used in enzyme-linked immunoassays to detect early stage PDAC [73][74]. The overall sensitivity for PDAC detection is up to 76%, with 64% and 85% sensitivity in patients with early and advanced stage diseases, respectively. The combination of PAM4 and CA 19-9 previously achieved an overall sensitivity 84% and specificity of 82% [72]. PAM4 has been reported to effectively differentiate between PDAC and chronic pancreatitis, with only 19% of chronic pancreatitis specimens staining positively and most of their reactivity attributed to coexistent pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia [75].

9. Osteopontin: Diagnostic and Prognostic Role

Osteopontin is an extracellular matrix-associated phosphoprotein that is normally produced by macrophages, osteoblasts, vascular smooth muscle cells, and endothelial cells, and it is detected in various body secretions [76][77]. Plasma osteopontin levels were initially reported to increase as much as 2.5× in patients with PDAC compared to normal controls. Osteopontin levels >334 ng/mL have been associated with a sensitivity of 80% and a specificity of 97% in the detection of PDAC, while the combination of CA 19-9 > 70 units/mL and osteopontin >334 ng/mL demonstrated a 100% sensitivity in PDAC detection [76]. Osteopontin levels can effectively differentiate PDAC patients from patients with chronic pancreatitis and healthy individuals, and a combination of osteopontin, CA 19-9, and TIMP-1 is superior to CA 19-9 or osteopontin alone in PDAC diagnosis [78][79]. In addition, osteopontin levels > 150 ng/mL have been associated with a shorter survival in patients with PDAC [78].

10. SMAD4/DPC4: Diagnostic, Prognostic and Predictive Role

The SMAD4 or DPC4 (deleted in pancreatic cancer-4) is a signal transduction protein that acts as the central mediator in the TGF-β signal transduction pathway [80]. The SMAD4 gene has been identified as one of the most important tumor suppressor genes involved in the development of late-stage pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia in the pathogenesis of PDAC, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, and metastasis, with approximately 55% of PDAC tumors being affected by SMAD4-inactivating mutations [43][81][82][83][84][85]. Needle or core biopsy specimens stained with immunohistochemistry for SMAD expression facilitate the discrimination between PDAC and benign or inflammatory conditions [86].

The expression of the SMAD4 protein has been positively associated with an increased survival and negatively associated with the grade of intraepithelial lesions [81][87]. Interestingly, SMAD4 deletion has been associated with a shorter disease-free survival without affecting the overall survival [88]. A meta-analysis by Shugang and colleagues revealed an increased risk of death in PDAC patients with SMAD4 deletion, in both univariate (hazard ratio: 1.20; 95% CI: 1.03–1.40) and multivariate analysis (hazard ratio: 1.88; 95% CI: 1.31–2.70) data pooling [89].

In vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated a role of SMAD deletion in the promotion of radioresistance in PDAC cells through the activation of autophagy and the clearance of radiation-induced cytotoxic oxidative products [90]. Notably, decreased SMAD expression results in an increased sensitivity of PDAC to drugs that target the cell cycle, including gemcitabine and cytarabine [88].

11. Immune Response and Inflammatory Markers: Prognostic and Predictive Role

Inflammation is an important component of both the progression of carcinogenesis and antitumor response. Inflammatory markers undergo various changes that are reflected in core laboratory parameters. Schlick et al. reported that the C-reactive protein and the neutrophil/lymphocyte (NLR) ratio are independent prognostic factors of poor survival in patients with PDAC. These markers were lower at the time of PDAC diagnosis in patients eventually needing second or third line chemotherapeutic agents and have been proposed as prognostic markers of poor response to chemotherapy [91]. In a study by Hoshimoto and colleagues, patients with high preoperative or postoperative platelet/lymphocyte (PLR) and NLR ratios had a significantly shorter overall survival [92]. Similarly, in another study by Giakoustidis and colleagues, both pretreatment (prior to surgery or prior to chemo/chemoradiotherapy) NLR > 4 and PLR > 120 were associated with a shorter overall survival in PDAC patients [93]. In addition, a higher NLR and PLR at diagnosis have been associated with R0 resectability and have been inversely associated with nodal status [94].

Notably, the combination of NLR ≥ 1.69 and CA 19-9 ≥ 107.95 U/mL has been shown to be an effective prognostic marker of 100% two-year mortality in PDAC patients with recurrent disease [95]. Recently, the C-reactive protein/lymphocyte ratio has been associated with poor survival at values higher than 1.8. Furthermore, a ratio over 1.8 has been recognized as an independent risk factor of death in stages II, III, and IV [96].

Lastly, patients with PDAC resection and a lymphocyte/monocyte (LMR) ratio ≥ 2.8 were found to have an almost twofold higher overall survival rate at one year compared to patients with an LMR < 2.8 (66.2% vs. 36.1%, respectively; p = 0.015) [97].

12. Human Equilibrative Nucleoside Transporter 1 (hENT1): Prognostic and Predictive Role

Human equilibrative nucleoside transporter (hENT1) is a transmembrane protein that mediates the intracellular uptake of nucleosides or nucleoside-like drugs, including the anti-neoplastic drug gemcitabine. PDAC tumors abundantly express hENT1, and it has been investigated as a potential predictive biomarker of the response to gemcitabine based treatment. In a subanalysis of the ESPAC-3 trial population, which was a comparative study between gemcitabine and 5-fluorouracil based chemotherapy in PDAC patients, hENT1 expression was identified as a predictive biomarker of the response to gemcitabine without any hENT-1-dependent difference observed in the fluorouracil group [98]. Aoyama and colleagues reported that patients with high hENT1 expression in PDAC tissue and treated with curative resection and adjuvant gemcitabine had a higher overall survival at five years (high hENT1: 20.6% vs. low hENT1: 8.9%; p = 0.019) and disease-free survival rates at three years (high hENT1: 23.8% vs. low hENT1: 9.4%; p = 0.024) post-procedure [99]. In their meta-analysis, Bird et al. showed benefits in both disease-free (hazard ratio: 0.58; 95% CI: 0.42–0.79) and overall survival (hazard ratio: 0.52; 95% CI: 0.38–0.72) in PDAC patients with high hENT1 expression and adjuvant gemcitabine chemotherapy after PDAC resection [100]. In PDAC patients treated with resection and adjuvant S-1, which is a newer oral inhibitor of dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase, a high hENT1 expression has been associated with a significantly lower median overall survival (30.9 vs. 58.0; hazard ratio: 1.75) [101][102]. In vitro experiments have confirmed the association between hENT1 and gemcitabine effectiveness in PDAC treatment and proposed an inhibitory effect on HIF-1α mRNA levels and protein expression as one of the mechanisms [103]. HIF-1α promotes the survival of cancer cells in hypoxic conditions through the upregulation of glycolysis and has been previously associated with the resistance of malignant cells to chemotherapeutic agents [104]. Lastly, the heterogeneity in the quantification of hENT1 protein expression between various methods has resulted in the evaluation of the hENT1 mRNA level as an effective alternative biomarker [105][106].

13. Human Concentrative Nucleoside Transporters 1 and 3 (hCNT1 and hCNT3): Prognostic and Predictive Role

The human concentrative nucleoside transporters 1 and 3 (hCNT1 and hCNT3) significantly contribute, in addition to hENT1, to the intracellular uptake of gemcitabine. Previously, in vitro studies revealed that reduced hCNT1 expression is responsible for the resistance of PDAC cells to gemcitabine, while the induction of hCNT1 greatly improved the intracellular gemcitabine uptake [107]. In another in vitro study by Paproski et al., it was shown that the transfection of resistant PDAC cells with hCNT3 cDNA resulted in an increased gemcitabine uptake [108]. Notably, Hesler and colleagues showed that decreased hCNT3 expression in PDAC tumors is dependent on interactions with the microenvironment, specifically the pancreatic stellate cells, which secrete the cysteine-rich angiogenic inducer 61 (CYR61) protein after TGF-β signaling. CYR61 negatively regulates hCNT3 expression in PDAC cells [109]. A splice variant of the hCNT1 RNA, named hCNT1-IR, was recently reported to be overexpressed in PDAC [110]. Interestingly, the chemoresistance of PDAC tumors associated with the tyrosine kinase receptor erythroblastic leukemia viral oncogene homolog 2 (ErbB-2, HER2/neu) or the MUC-4 mucin have been partially attributed to hCNT1 and hCNT3 underexpression [111][112]. In terms of prognosis, a high expression of hCNT3 in PDAC patients treated with gemcitabine/radiation has been associated with a prolonged overall survival, and patients with both high hENT1 and high hCNT3 were found to have an improved median overall survival (94.8 months) compared to patients with the increased expression of only one biomarker (18.7 months) [113].

14. BRCA1 and BRCA2: Prognostic and Predictive Role

BRCA (breast cancer type 1 and type 2 susceptibility proteins—BRCA1 and BRCA2) inactivating mutations have been previously identified as late molecular events in the pathogenesis of PDAC and have been proposed as predictive and prognostic biomarkers in patients with PDAC [114][115][116][117]. BRCA tumor suppressor proteins participate in the process of DNA double-strand break repair through homologous recombination [118]. Variants in BRCA2 are the most common high-penetrant genetic factors associated with PDAC [119]. Patients with germline BRCA2 mutations are at an up-to 10-fold higher risk of PDAC than the general population [114]. BRCA1 mutations are less common than BRCA2 mutations in patients with familial PDAC, and patients with germline BRCA1 mutations are at a three-fold higher risk of PDAC development [120].

The DNA repair defect of cells with BRCA mutations has been exploited to develop drugs that result in detrimental DNA damage, cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis. The inhibition of the poly-ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) enzyme results in the development of DNA lesions that are normally repaired by the BRCA-dependent homologous recombination mechanism [121]. The POLO randomized clinical trial investigated the effect of olaparib (PARP inhibitor) on the survival of BRCA1- or BRCA2-positive PDAC patients with metastatic disease. It was shown that olaparib prolongs the progression free survival in patients with germline BRCA mutations (olaparib: 7.4 months vs. placebo: 3.8 months; p = 0.004), whereas there was no benefit in terms of overall survival [122].

Wattenberg and colleagues recently showed that PDAC patients with BRCA germline mutations have a better objective response rate to platinum-based chemotherapy compared with mutation-negative patients (58% vs. 21% respectively; p = 0.0022) [123]. Similarly, in a retrospective study investigating 61 patients with borderline resectable PDAC, BRCA germline mutation carriers receiving neoadjuvant FOLFIRINOX had a higher pathologic complete response rate (44.4%) and overall survival compared to controls (10%) [124].

References

  1. Ballehaninna, U.K.; Chamberlain, R.S. The Clinical Utility of Serum CA 19-9 in the Diagnosis, Prognosis and Management of Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma: An Evidence Based Appraisal. J. Gastrointest. Oncol. 2012, 3, 15.
  2. Goonetilleke, K.S.; Siriwardena, A.K. Systematic Review of Carbohydrate Antigen (CA 19-9) as a Biochemical Marker in the Diagnosis of Pancreatic Cancer. Eur. J. Surg. Oncol. 2007, 33, 266–270.
  3. Tessler, D.A.; Catanzaro, A.; Velanovich, V.; Havstad, S.; Goel, S. Predictors of Cancer in Patients with Suspected Pancreatic Malignancy without a Tissue Diagnosis. Am. J. Surg. 2006, 191, 191–197.
  4. Van Manen, L.; Groen, J.V.; Putter, H.; Vahrmeijer, A.L.; Swijnenburg, R.-J.; Bonsing, B.A.; Mieog, J.S.D. Elevated CEA and CA19-9 Serum Levels Independently Predict Advanced Pancreatic Cancer at Diagnosis. Biomarkers 2020, 25, 186–193.
  5. Palmquist, C.; Dehlendorff, C.; Calatayud, D.; Hansen, C.P.; Hasselby, J.P.; Johansen, J.S. Prediction of Unresectability and Prognosis in Patients Undergoing Surgery on Suspicion of Pancreatic Cancer Using Carbohydrate Antigen 19-9, Interleukin 6, and YKL-40. Pancreas 2020, 49, 53–61.
  6. Ferrone, C.R.; Finkelstein, D.M.; Thayer, S.P.; Muzikansky, A.; Fernandez-delCastillo, C.; Warshaw, A.L. Perioperative CA19-9 Levels Can Predict Stage and Survival in Patients with Resectable Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma. J. Clin. Oncol. Off. J. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. 2006, 24, 2897–2902.
  7. Berardi, R.; Mandolesi, A.; Pellei, C.; Maccaroni, E.; Onofri, A.; Lucarelli, A.; Biagetti, S.; Alfonsi, S.; Caramanti, M.; Savini, A.; et al. Prognostic Factors in Pancreatic Cancer: The Role of Perineural, Vascular and Lymphatic Invasion and of Ca19-9. J. Gastrointest. Dig. Syst. 2013, 03.
  8. Kim, J.-E.; Lee, K.T.; Lee, J.K.; Paik, S.W.; Rhee, J.C.; Choi, K.W. Clinical Usefulness of Carbohydrate Antigen 19-9 as a Screening Test for Pancreatic Cancer in an Asymptomatic Population. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2004, 19, 182–186.
  9. Chang, C.-Y.; Huang, S.-P.; Chiu, H.-M.; Lee, Y.-C.; Chen, M.-F.; Lin, J.-T. Low Efficacy of Serum Levels of CA 19-9 in Prediction of Malignant Diseases in Asymptomatic Population in Taiwan. Hepatogastroenterology 2006, 53, 1–4.
  10. Kim, M.S.; Jeon, T.J.; Park, J.Y.; Choi, J.; Shin, W.C.; Park, S.E.; Seo, J.Y.; Kim, Y.M. Clinical Interpretation of Elevated CA 19-9 Levels in Obstructive Jaundice Following Benign and Malignant Pancreatobiliary Disease. Korean J. Gastroenterol. Taehan Sohwagi Hakhoe Chi 2017, 70, 96–102.
  11. Binicier, O.B.; Pakoz, Z.B. CA 19-9 Levels in Patients with Acute Pancreatitis Due to Gallstone and Metabolic/Toxic Reasons. Rev. Assoc. Med. Bras. 2019, 65, 965–970.
  12. Pandey, D.; Sharma, R.; Sharma, S.; Salhan, S. Unusually High Serum Levels of CA 19-9 in an Ovarian Tumour: Malignant or Benign? J. Clin. Diagn. Res. JCDR 2017, 11, QD08–QD10.
  13. Zhang, S.-Y.; Lin, M.; Zhang, H.-B. Diagnostic Value of Carcinoembryonic Antigen and Carcinoma Antigen 19-9 for Colorectal Carcinoma. Int. J. Clin. Exp. Pathol. 2015, 8, 9404–9409.
  14. Lumachi, F.; Lo Re, G.; Tozzoli, R.; D’Aurizio, F.; Facomer, F.; Chiara, G.B.; Basso, S.M.M. Measurement of Serum Carcinoembryonic Antigen, Carbohydrate Antigen 19-9, Cytokeratin-19 Fragment and Matrix Metalloproteinase-7 for Detecting Cholangiocarcinoma: A Preliminary Case-Control Study. Anticancer Res. 2014, 34, 6663–6667.
  15. Bertino, G.; Ardiri, A.M.; Calvagno, G.S.; Malaguarnera, G.; Interlandi, D.; Vacante, M.; Bertino, N.; Lucca, F.; Madeddu, R.; Motta, M. Carbohydrate 19.9 Antigen Serum Levels in Liver Disease. BioMed Res. Int. 2013, 2013, 531640.
  16. Luo, G.; Liu, C.; Guo, M.; Cheng, H.; Lu, Y.; Jin, K.; Liu, L.; Long, J.; Xu, J.; Lu, R.; et al. Potential Biomarkers in Lewis Negative Patients with Pancreatic Cancer. Ann. Surg. 2017, 265, 800–805.
  17. Kannagi, R. Carbohydrate Antigen Sialyl Lewis A--Its Pathophysiological Significance and Induction Mechanism in Cancer Progression. Chang. Gung Med. J. 2007, 30, 189–209.
  18. O’Brien, J.; Hayder, H.; Zayed, Y.; Peng, C. Overview of MicroRNA Biogenesis, Mechanisms of Actions, and Circulation. Front. Endocrinol. 2018, 9, 402.
  19. Lekchnov, E.A.; Zaporozhchenko, I.A.; Morozkin, E.S.; Bryzgunova, O.E.; Vlassov, V.V.; Laktionov, P.P. Protocol for MiRNA Isolation from Biofluids. Anal. Biochem. 2016, 499, 78–84.
  20. Bloomston, M.; Frankel, W.L.; Petrocca, F.; Volinia, S.; Alder, H.; Hagan, J.P.; Liu, C.-G.; Bhatt, D.; Taccioli, C.; Croce, C.M. MicroRNA Expression Patterns to Differentiate Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma from Normal Pancreas and Chronic Pancreatitis. JAMA 2007, 297, 1901–1908.
  21. Yang, J.-Y.; Sun, Y.-W.; Liu, D.-J.; Zhang, J.-F.; Li, J.; Hua, R. MicroRNAs in Stool Samples as Potential Screening Biomarkers for Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma Cancer. Am. J. Cancer Res. 2014, 4, 663–673.
  22. Debernardi, S.; Massat, N.J.; Radon, T.P.; Sangaralingam, A.; Banissi, A.; Ennis, D.P.; Dowe, T.; Chelala, C.; Pereira, S.P.; Kocher, H.M.; et al. Noninvasive Urinary MiRNA Biomarkers for Early Detection of Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma. Am. J. Cancer Res. 2015, 5, 3455–3466.
  23. Brancaccio, M.; Natale, F.; Falco, G.; Angrisano, T. Cell-Free DNA Methylation: The New Frontiers of Pancreatic Cancer Biomarkers’ Discovery. Genes 2019, 11, 14.
  24. Koch, A.; Joosten, S.C.; Feng, Z.; de Ruijter, T.C.; Draht, M.X.; Melotte, V.; Smits, K.M.; Veeck, J.; Herman, J.G.; Van Neste, L.; et al. Analysis of DNA Methylation in Cancer: Location Revisited. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 2018, 15, 459–466.
  25. Baylin, S.B.; Jones, P.A. Epigenetic Determinants of Cancer. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol. 2016, 8.
  26. Kisiel, J.B.; Raimondo, M.; Taylor, W.R.; Yab, T.C.; Mahoney, D.W.; Sun, Z.; Middha, S.; Baheti, S.; Zou, H.; Smyrk, T.C.; et al. New DNA Methylation Markers for Pancreatic Cancer: Discovery, Tissue Validation, and Pilot Testing in Pancreatic Juice. Clin. Cancer Res. Off. J. Am. Assoc. Cancer Res. 2015, 21, 4473–4481.
  27. Matsubayashi, H.; Canto, M.; Sato, N.; Klein, A.; Abe, T.; Yamashita, K.; Yeo, C.J.; Kalloo, A.; Hruban, R.; Goggins, M. DNA Methylation Alterations in the Pancreatic Juice of Patients with Suspected Pancreatic Disease. Cancer Res. 2006, 66, 1208–1217.
  28. Parsi, M.A.; Li, A.; Li, C.-P.; Goggins, M. DNA methylation alterations in ERCP brush samples of patients with suspected pancreaticobiliary disease. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. Off. Clin. Pract. J. Am. Gastroenterol. Assoc. 2008, 6, 1270–1278.
  29. Henriksen, S.D.; Madsen, P.H.; Larsen, A.C.; Johansen, M.B.; Pedersen, I.S.; Krarup, H.; Thorlacius-Ussing, O. Cell-Free DNA Promoter Hypermethylation in Plasma as a Predictive Marker for Survival of Patients with Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma. Oncotarget 2017, 8, 93942–93956.
  30. Lupinacci, R.M.; Bachet, J.-B.; André, T.; Duval, A.; Svrcek, M. Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma Harboring Microsatellite Instability/DNA Mismatch Repair Deficiency. Towards Personalized Medicine. Surg. Oncol. 2019, 28, 121–127.
  31. Grant, R.C.; Denroche, R.; Jang, G.H.; Nowak, K.M.; Zhang, A.; Borgida, A.; Holter, S.; Topham, J.T.; Wilson, J.; Dodd, A.; et al. Clinical and Genomic Characterisation of Mismatch Repair Deficient Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma. Gut 2020.
  32. Singhi, A.D.; George, B.; Greenbowe, J.R.; Chung, J.; Suh, J.; Maitra, A.; Klempner, S.J.; Hendifar, A.; Milind, J.M.; Golan, T.; et al. Real-Time Targeted Genome Profile Analysis of Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinomas Identifies Genetic Alterations That Might Be Targeted with Existing Drugs or Used as Biomarkers. Gastroenterology 2019, 156, 2242–2253.e4.
  33. Hu, Z.I.; Shia, J.; Stadler, Z.K.; Varghese, A.M.; Capanu, M.; Salo-Mullen, E.; Lowery, M.A.; Diaz, L.A.; Mandelker, D.; Yu, K.H.; et al. Evaluating Mismatch Repair Deficiency in Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma: Challenges and Recommendations. Clin. Cancer Res. Off. J. Am. Assoc. Cancer Res. 2018, 24, 1326–1336.
  34. Lupinacci, R.M.; Goloudina, A.; Buhard, O.; Bachet, J.-B.; Maréchal, R.; Demetter, P.; Cros, J.; Bardier-Dupas, A.; Collura, A.; Cervera, P.; et al. Prevalence of Microsatellite Instability in Intraductal Papillary Mucinous Neoplasms of the Pancreas. Gastroenterology 2018, 154, 1061–1065.
  35. Humphris, J.L.; Patch, A.-M.; Nones, K.; Bailey, P.J.; Johns, A.L.; McKay, S.; Chang, D.K.; Miller, D.K.; Pajic, M.; Kassahn, K.S.; et al. Hypermutation In Pancreatic Cancer. Gastroenterology 2017, 152, 68–74.e2.
  36. Nakata, B.; Wang, Y.Q.; Yashiro, M.; Nishioka, N.; Tanaka, H.; Ohira, M.; Ishikawa, T.; Nishino, H.; Hirakawa, K. Prognostic Value of Microsatellite Instability in Resectable Pancreatic Cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. Off. J. Am. Assoc. Cancer Res. 2002, 8, 2536–2540.
  37. Ottenhof, N.A.; Morsink, F.H.M.; ten Kate, F.; van Noorden, C.J.F.; Offerhaus, G.J.A. Multivariate Analysis of Immunohistochemical Evaluation of Protein Expression in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma Reveals Prognostic Significance for Persistent Smad4 Expression Only. Cell. Oncol. Dordr. 2012, 35, 119–126.
  38. Marabelle, A.; Le, D.T.; Ascierto, P.A.; Di Giacomo, A.M.; De Jesus-Acosta, A.; Delord, J.-P.; Geva, R.; Gottfried, M.; Penel, N.; Hansen, A.R.; et al. Efficacy of Pembrolizumab in Patients With Noncolorectal High Microsatellite Instability/Mismatch Repair-Deficient Cancer: Results From the Phase II KEYNOTE-158 Study. J. Clin. Oncol. Off. J. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. 2020, 38, 1–10.
  39. Cloyd, J.M.; Katz, M.H.G.; Wang, H.; Cuddy, A.; You, Y.N. Clinical and Genetic Implications of DNA Mismatch Repair Deficiency in Patients With Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma. JAMA Surg. 2017, 152, 1086–1088.
  40. Riazy, M.; Kalloger, S.E.; Sheffield, B.S.; Peixoto, R.D.; Li-Chang, H.H.; Scudamore, C.H.; Renouf, D.J.; Schaeffer, D.F. Mismatch Repair Status May Predict Response to Adjuvant Chemotherapy in Resectable Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma. Mod. Pathol. 2015, 28, 1383–1389.
  41. Australian Pancreatic Cancer Genome Initiative; Biankin, A.V.; Waddell, N.; Kassahn, K.S.; Gingras, M.-C.; Muthuswamy, L.B.; Johns, A.L.; Miller, D.K.; Wilson, P.J.; Patch, A.-M.; et al. Pancreatic Cancer Genomes Reveal Aberrations in Axon Guidance Pathway Genes. Nature 2012, 491, 399–405.
  42. Gall, T.M.H.; Belete, S.; Khanderia, E.; Frampton, A.E.; Jiao, L.R. Circulating Tumor Cells and Cell-Free DNA in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma. Am. J. Pathol. 2019, 189, 71–81.
  43. Gharibi, A.; Adamian, Y.; Kelber, J.A. Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Pancreatic Cancer. Acta Histochem. 2016, 118, 305–316.
  44. Collins, M.A.; Bednar, F.; Zhang, Y.; Brisset, J.-C.; Galbán, S.; Galbán, C.J.; Rakshit, S.; Flannagan, K.S.; Adsay, N.V.; Pasca di Magliano, M. Oncogenic Kras Is Required for Both the Initiation and Maintenance of Pancreatic Cancer in Mice. J. Clin. Investig. 2012, 122, 639–653.
  45. Ying, H.; Kimmelman, A.C.; Lyssiotis, C.A.; Hua, S.; Chu, G.C.; Fletcher-Sananikone, E.; Locasale, J.W.; Son, J.; Zhang, H.; Coloff, J.L.; et al. Oncogenic Kras Maintains Pancreatic Tumors through Regulation of Anabolic Glucose Metabolism. Cell 2012, 149, 656–670.
  46. Kinugasa, H.; Nouso, K.; Miyahara, K.; Morimoto, Y.; Dohi, C.; Tsutsumi, K.; Kato, H.; Matsubara, T.; Okada, H.; Yamamoto, K. Detection of K-Ras Gene Mutation by Liquid Biopsy in Patients with Pancreatic Cancer. Cancer 2015, 121, 2271–2280.
  47. Inga, E.; Perdomo Zaldivar, E.; Gómez, M.; Cano, T.; Rodriguez Alonso, B.; Ortiz, M.; Rodriguez Alonso, R.; Toledano Fonseca, M.; Rodriguez Ariza, A.; Aranda, E. Impact of KRAS Mutations in Clinical Features and Survival in Pancreatic Cancer Patients: A Single Institution Experience. Ann. Oncol. 2019, 30, iv94.
  48. Cheng, H.; Luo, G.; Jin, K.; Fan, Z.; Huang, Q.; Gong, Y.; Xu, J.; Yu, X.; Liu, C. Kras Mutation Correlating with Circulating Regulatory T Cells Predicts the Prognosis of Advanced Pancreatic Cancer Patients. Cancer Med. 2020, 9, 2153–2159.
  49. Lee, B.; Lipton, L.; Cohen, J.; Tie, J.; Javed, A.A.; Li, L.; Goldstein, D.; Burge, M.; Cooray, P.; Nagrial, A.; et al. Circulating Tumor DNA as a Potential Marker of Adjuvant Chemotherapy Benefit Following Surgery for Localized Pancreatic Cancer. Ann. Oncol. Off. J. Eur. Soc. Med. Oncol. 2019, 30, 1472–1478.
  50. Chan-Seng-Yue, M.; Kim, J.C.; Wilson, G.W.; Ng, K.; Figueroa, E.F.; O’Kane, G.M.; Connor, A.A.; Denroche, R.E.; Grant, R.C.; McLeod, J.; et al. Transcription Phenotypes of Pancreatic Cancer Are Driven by Genomic Events during Tumor Evolution. Nat. Genet. 2020, 52, 231–240.
  51. Ge, R.; Tan, E.; Sharghi-Namini, S.; Asada, H.H. Exosomes in Cancer Microenvironment and Beyond: Have We Overlooked These Extracellular Messengers? Cancer Microenviron. Off. J. Int. Cancer Microenviron. Soc. 2012, 5, 323–332.
  52. Lorenzon, L.; Blandino, G. Glypican-1 Exosomes: Do They Initiate a New Era for Early Pancreatic Cancer Diagnosis? Transl. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2016, 1, 8.
  53. Armstrong, E.A.; Beal, E.W.; Chakedis, J.; Paredes, A.Z.; Moris, D.; Pawlik, T.M.; Schmidt, C.R.; Dillhoff, M.E. Exosomes in Pancreatic Cancer: From Early Detection to Treatment. J. Gastrointest. Surg. 2018, 22, 737–750.
  54. Cazzoli, R.; Buttitta, F.; Di Nicola, M.; Malatesta, S.; Marchetti, A.; Rom, W.N.; Pass, H.I. MicroRNAs Derived from Circulating Exosomes as Noninvasive Biomarkers for Screening and Diagnosing Lung Cancer. J. Thorac. Oncol. 2013, 8, 1156–1162.
  55. Moris, D.; Beal, E.W.; Chakedis, J.; Burkhart, R.A.; Schmidt, C.; Dillhoff, M.; Zhang, X.; Theocharis, S.; Pawlik, T.M. Role of Exosomes in Treatment of Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Surg. Oncol. 2017, 26, 219–228.
  56. Wu, C.-Y.; Du, S.-L.; Zhang, J.; Liang, A.-L.; Liu, Y.-J. Exosomes and Breast Cancer: A Comprehensive Review of Novel Therapeutic Strategies from Diagnosis to Treatment. Cancer Gene Ther. 2017, 24, 6–12.
  57. Ogata-Kawata, H.; Izumiya, M.; Kurioka, D.; Honma, Y.; Yamada, Y.; Furuta, K.; Gunji, T.; Ohta, H.; Okamoto, H.; Sonoda, H.; et al. Circulating Exosomal MicroRNAs as Biomarkers of Colon Cancer. PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e92921.
  58. Allenson, K.; Castillo, J.; Lucas, F.A.S.; Scelo, G.; Kim, D.U.; Bernard, V.; Davis, G.; Kumar, T.; Katz, M.; Overman, M.J.; et al. High Prevalence of MutantKRAS in Circulating Exosome-Derived DNA from Early-Stage Pancreatic Cancer Patients. Ann. Oncol. 2017, 28, 741–747.
  59. Yang, S.; Che, S.P.Y.; Kurywchak, P.; Tavormina, J.L.; Gansmo, L.B.; Correa de Sampaio, P.; Tachezy, M.; Bockhorn, M.; Gebauer, F.; Haltom, A.R.; et al. Detection of Mutant KRAS and TP53 DNA in Circulating Exosomes from Healthy Individuals and Patients with Pancreatic Cancer. Cancer Biol. Ther. 2017, 18, 158–165.
  60. Li, J.; Kleeff, J.; Kayed, H.; Felix, K.; Penzel, R.; Büchler, M.W.; Korc, M.; Friess, H. Glypican-1 Antisense Transfection Modulates TGF-Beta-Dependent Signaling in Colo-357 Pancreatic Cancer Cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2004, 320, 1148–1155.
  61. Ding, K.; Lopez-Burks, M.; Sánchez-Duran, J.A.; Korc, M.; Lander, A.D. Growth Factor-Induced Shedding of Syndecan-1 Confers Glypican-1 Dependence on Mitogenic Responses of Cancer Cells. J. Cell Biol. 2005, 171, 729–738.
  62. Kleeff, J.; Wildi, S.; Kumbasar, A.; Friess, H.; Lander, A.D.; Korc, M. Stable Transfection of a Glypican-1 Antisense Construct Decreases Tumorigenicity in PANC-1 Pancreatic Carcinoma Cells. Pancreas 1999, 19, 281–288.
  63. Duan, L.; Hu, X.; Feng, D.; Lei, S.; Hu, G. GPC-1 May Serve as a Predictor of Perineural Invasion and a Prognosticator of Survival in Pancreatic Cancer. Asian J. Surg. 2013, 36, 7–12.
  64. Melo, S.A.; Luecke, L.B.; Kahlert, C.; Fernandez, A.F.; Gammon, S.T.; Kaye, J.; LeBleu, V.S.; Mittendorf, E.A.; Weitz, J.; Rahbari, N.; et al. Glypican-1 Identifies Cancer Exosomes and Detects Early Pancreatic Cancer. Nature 2015, 523, 177–182.
  65. Que, R.; Ding, G.; Chen, J.; Cao, L. Analysis of Serum Exosomal MicroRNAs and Clinicopathologic Features of Patients with Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma. World J. Surg. Oncol. 2013, 11, 219.
  66. Machida, T.; Tomofuji, T.; Maruyama, T.; Yoneda, T.; Ekuni, D.; Azuma, T.; Miyai, H.; Mizuno, H.; Kato, H.; Tsutsumi, K.; et al. MiR-1246 and MiR-4644 in Salivary Exosome as Potential Biomarkers for Pancreatobiliary Tract Cancer. Oncol. Rep. 2016, 36, 2375–2381.
  67. Martini, V.; Timme-Bronsert, S.; Fichtner-Feigl, S.; Hoeppner, J.; Kulemann, B. Circulating Tumor Cells in Pancreatic Cancer: Current Perspectives. Cancers 2019, 11, 1659.
  68. Rhim, A.D.; Mirek, E.T.; Aiello, N.M.; Maitra, A.; Bailey, J.M.; McAllister, F.; Reichert, M.; Beatty, G.L.; Rustgi, A.K.; Vonderheide, R.H.; et al. EMT and Dissemination Precede Pancreatic Tumor Formation. Cell 2012, 148, 349–361.
  69. Kulemann, B.; Pitman, M.B.; Liss, A.S.; Valsangkar, N.; Fernández-Del Castillo, C.; Lillemoe, K.D.; Hoeppner, J.; Mino-Kenudson, M.; Warshaw, A.L.; Thayer, S.P. Circulating Tumor Cells Found in Patients with Localized and Advanced Pancreatic Cancer. Pancreas 2015, 44, 547–550.
  70. Zhu, Y.; Zhang, H.; Chen, N.; Hao, J.; Jin, H.; Ma, X. Diagnostic Value of Various Liquid Biopsy Methods for Pancreatic Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Medicine 2020, 99, e18581.
  71. Wang, Y.; Yu, X.; Hartmann, D.; Zhou, J. Circulating Tumor Cells in Peripheral Blood of Pancreatic Cancer Patients and Their Prognostic Role: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. HPB 2019.
  72. Gold, D.V.; Gaedcke, J.; Ghadimi, B.M.; Goggins, M.; Hruban, R.H.; Liu, M.; Newsome, G.; Goldenberg, D.M. PAM4 Enzyme Immunoassay Alone and in Combination with CA 19-9 for the Detection of Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma. Cancer 2013, 119, 522–528.
  73. Gold, D.V.; Newsome, G.; Liu, D.; Goldenberg, D.M. Mapping PAM4 (Clivatuzumab), a Monoclonal Antibody in Clinical Trials for Early Detection and Therapy of Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma, to MUC5AC Mucin. Mol. Cancer 2013, 12, 143.
  74. Liu, D.; Chang, C.-H.; Gold, D.V.; Goldenberg, D.M. Identification of PAM4 (Clivatuzumab)-Reactive Epitope on MUC5AC: A Promising Biomarker and Therapeutic Target for Pancreatic Cancer. Oncotarget 2015, 6, 4274–4285.
  75. Shi, C.; Merchant, N.; Newsome, G.; Goldenberg, D.M.; Gold, D.V. Differentiation of Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma from Chronic Pancreatitis by PAM4 Immunohistochemistry. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 2014, 138, 220–228.
  76. Koopmann, J.; Fedarko, N.S.; Jain, A.; Maitra, A.; Iacobuzio-Donahue, C.; Rahman, A.; Hruban, R.H.; Yeo, C.J.; Goggins, M. Evaluation of Osteopontin as Biomarker for Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. Publ. Am. Assoc. Cancer Res. Cosponsored Am. Soc. Prev. Oncol. 2004, 13, 487–491.
  77. O’Brien, E.R.; Garvin, M.R.; Stewart, D.K.; Hinohara, T.; Simpson, J.B.; Schwartz, S.M.; Giachelli, C.M. Osteopontin Is Synthesized by Macrophage, Smooth Muscle, and Endothelial Cells in Primary and Restenotic Human Coronary Atherosclerotic Plaques. Arterioscler. Thromb. J. Vasc. Biol. 1994, 14, 1648–1656.
  78. Poruk, K.E.; Firpo, M.A.; Scaife, C.L.; Adler, D.G.; Emerson, L.L.; Boucher, K.M.; Mulvihill, S.J. Serum Osteopontin and Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinase 1 as Diagnostic and Prognostic Biomarkers for Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma. Pancreas 2013, 42, 193–197.
  79. Rychlíková, J.; Vecka, M.; Jáchymová, M.; Macášek, J.; Hrabák, P.; Zeman, M.; Vávrová, L.; Řoupal, J.; Krechler, T.; Ák, A. Osteopontin as a Discriminating Marker for Pancreatic Cancer and Chronic Pancreatitis. Cancer Biomark. Sect. Dis. Markers 2016, 17, 55–65.
  80. Hahn, S.A.; Schutte, M.; Hoque, A.T.; Moskaluk, C.A.; da Costa, L.T.; Rozenblum, E.; Weinstein, C.L.; Fischer, A.; Yeo, C.J.; Hruban, R.H.; et al. DPC4, a Candidate Tumor Suppressor Gene at Human Chromosome 18q21.1. Science 1996, 271, 350–353.
  81. Tascilar, M.; Skinner, H.G.; Rosty, C.; Sohn, T.; Wilentz, R.E.; Offerhaus, G.J.A.; Adsay, V.; Abrams, R.A.; Cameron, J.L.; Kern, S.E.; et al. The SMAD4 Protein and Prognosis of Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma. Clin. Cancer Res. 2001, 7, 4115–4121.
  82. Wang, Z.; Li, Y.; Zhan, S.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, S.; Tang, Q.; Li, M.; Tan, Z.; Liu, S.; Xing, X. SMAD4 Y353C Promotes the Progression of PDAC. BMC Cancer 2019, 19, 1037.
  83. Bazzichetto, C.; Conciatori, F.; Luchini, C.; Simionato, F.; Santoro, R.; Vaccaro, V.; Corbo, V.; Falcone, I.; Ferretti, G.; Cognetti, F.; et al. From Genetic Alterations to Tumor Microenvironment: The Ariadne’s String in Pancreatic Cancer. Cells 2020, 9, 309.
  84. Tanaka, S. Molecular Pathogenesis and Targeted Therapy of Pancreatic Cancer. Ann. Surg. Oncol. 2016, 23 (Suppl. 2), S197–S205.
  85. Bardeesy, N.; Cheng, K.-H.; Berger, J.H.; Chu, G.C.; Pahler, J.; Olson, P.; Hezel, A.F.; Horner, J.; Lauwers, G.Y.; Hanahan, D.; et al. Smad4 Is Dispensable for Normal Pancreas Development yet Critical in Progression and Tumor Biology of Pancreas Cancer. Genes Dev. 2006, 20, 3130–3146.
  86. McCarthy, A.J.; Chetty, R. Smad4/DPC4. J. Clin. Pathol. 2018, 71, 661–664.
  87. Wilentz, R.E.; Iacobuzio-Donahue, C.A.; Argani, P.; McCarthy, D.M.; Parsons, J.L.; Yeo, C.J.; Kern, S.E.; Hruban, R.H. Loss of Expression of Dpc4 in Pancreatic Intraepithelial Neoplasia: Evidence That DPC4 Inactivation Occurs Late in Neoplastic Progression. Cancer Res. 2000, 60, 2002–2006.
  88. Hsieh, Y.-Y.; Liu, T.-P.; Chou, C.-J.; Chen, H.-Y.; Lee, K.-H.; Yang, P.-M. Integration of Bioinformatics Resources Reveals the Therapeutic Benefits of Gemcitabine and Cell Cycle Intervention in SMAD4-Deleted Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma. Genes 2019, 10, 766.
  89. Shugang, X.; Hongfa, Y.; Jianpeng, L.; Xu, Z.; Jingqi, F.; Xiangxiang, L.; Wei, L. Prognostic Value of SMAD4 in Pancreatic Cancer: A Meta-Analysis. Transl. Oncol. 2016, 9, 1–7.
  90. Wang, F.; Xia, X.; Yang, C.; Shen, J.; Mai, J.; Kim, H.-C.; Kirui, D.; Kang, Y.; Fleming, J.B.; Koay, E.J.; et al. SMAD4 Gene Mutation Renders Pancreatic Cancer Resistance to Radiotherapy through Promotion of Autophagy. Clin. Cancer Res. Off. J. Am. Assoc. Cancer Res. 2018, 24, 3176–3185.
  91. Schlick, K.; Magnes, T.; Huemer, F.; Ratzinger, L.; Weiss, L.; Pichler, M.; Melchardt, T.; Greil, R.; Egle, A. C-Reactive Protein and Neutrophil/Lymphocytes Ratio: Prognostic Indicator for Doubling Overall Survival Prediction in Pancreatic Cancer Patients. J. Clin. Med. 2019, 8, 1791.
  92. Hoshimoto, S.; Hishinuma, S.; Shirakawa, H.; Tomikawa, M.; Ozawa, I.; Ogata, Y. Validation and Clinical Usefulness of Pre- and Postoperative Systemic Inflammatory Parameters as Prognostic Markers in Patients with Potentially Resectable Pancreatic Cancer. Pancreatol. Off. J. Int. Assoc. Pancreatol. IAP Al 2020, 20, 239–246.
  93. Giakoustidis, A.; Neofytou, K.; Costa Neves, M.; Giakoustidis, D.; Louri, E.; Cunningham, D.; Mudan, S. Identifying the Role of Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio and Platelets-to-Lymphocyte Ratio as Prognostic Markers in Patients Undergoing Resection of Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma. Ann. Hepato-Biliary-Pancreat. Surg. 2018, 22, 197–207.
  94. Recio-Boiles, A.; Nallagangula, A.; Veeravelli, S.; Vondrak, J.; Saboda, K.; Roe, D.; Elquza, E.; McBride, A.; Babiker, H.M. Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte and Platelet-to-Lymphocyte Ratios Inversely Correlate to Clinical and Pathologic Stage in Patients with Resectable Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma. Ann. Pancreat. Cancer 2019, 2.
  95. Sakamoto, T.; Saito, H.; Uchinaka, E.I.; Morimoto, M.; Amisaki, M.; Tokuyasu, N.; Honjo, S.; Ashida, K.; Fujiwara, Y. The Combination of Neutrophil-to-Lymphocyte Ratio and Serum Carbohydrate Antigen 19-9 Level as a Prognostic Indicator in Patients with Recurrent Pancreatic Cancer. Anticancer Res. 2018, 38, 5497–5503.
  96. Fan, Z.; Luo, G.; Gong, Y.; Xu, H.; Qian, Y.; Deng, S.; Huang, Q.; Yang, C.; Cheng, H.; Jin, K.; et al. Prognostic Value of the C-Reactive Protein/Lymphocyte Ratio in Pancreatic Cancer. Ann. Surg. Oncol. 2020.
  97. Onoe, S.; Maeda, A.; Takayama, Y.; Fukami, Y.; Takahashi, T.; Uji, M.; Kaneoka, Y. The Prognostic Impact of the Lymphocyte-to-Monocyte Ratio in Resected Pancreatic Head Adenocarcinoma. Med. Princ. Pract. Int. J. Kuwait Univ. Health Sci. Cent. 2019, 28, 517–525.
  98. Greenhalf, W.; Ghaneh, P.; Neoptolemos, J.P.; Palmer, D.H.; Cox, T.F.; Lamb, R.F.; Garner, E.; Campbell, F.; Mackey, J.R.; Costello, E.; et al. Pancreatic Cancer HENT1 Expression and Survival from Gemcitabine in Patients from the ESPAC-3 Trial. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2014, 106, djt347.
  99. Aoyama, T.; Kazama, K.; Miyagi, Y.; Murakawa, M.; Yamaoku, K.; Atsumi, Y.; Shiozawa, M.; Ueno, M.; Morimoto, M.; Oshima, T.; et al. Predictive Role of Human Equilibrative Nucleoside Transporter 1 in Patients with Pancreatic Cancer Treated by Curative Resection and Gemcitabine-Only Adjuvant Chemotherapy. Oncol. Lett. 2017, 14, 599–606.
  100. Bird, N.T.E.; Elmasry, M.; Jones, R.; Psarelli, E.; Dodd, J.; Malik, H.; Greenhalf, W.; Kitteringham, N.; Ghaneh, P.; Neoptolemos, J.P.; et al. Immunohistochemical HENT1 Expression as a Prognostic Biomarker in Patients with Resected Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma Undergoing Adjuvant Gemcitabine-Based Chemotherapy. Br. J. Surg. 2017, 104, 328–336.
  101. Chhetri, P.; Giri, A.; Shakya, S.; Shakya, S.; Sapkota, B.; Pramod, K. Current Development of Anti-Cancer Drug S-1. J. Clin. Diagn. Res. JCDR 2016, 10, XE01–XE05.
  102. Okamura, Y.; Yasukawa, S.; Narimatsu, H.; Boku, N.; Fukutomi, A.; Konishi, M.; Morinaga, S.; Toyama, H.; Kaneoka, Y.; Shimizu, Y.; et al. Human Equilibrative Nucleoside Transporter-1 Expression Is a Predictor in Patients with Resected Pancreatic Cancer Treated with Adjuvant S-1 Chemotherapy. Cancer Sci. 2020, 111, 548–560.
  103. Xi, Y.; Yuan, P.; Li, T.; Zhang, M.; Liu, M.-F.; Li, B. HENT1 Reverses Chemoresistance by Regulating Glycolysis in Pancreatic Cancer. Cancer Lett. 2020.
  104. Triantafyllou, E.-A.; Georgatsou, E.; Mylonis, I.; Simos, G.; Paraskeva, E. Expression of AGPAT2, an Enzyme Involved in the Glycerophospholipid/Triacylglycerol Biosynthesis Pathway, Is Directly Regulated by HIF-1 and Promotes Survival and Etoposide Resistance of Cancer Cells under Hypoxia. Biochim. Biophys. Acta BBA Mol. Cell Biol. Lipids 2018, 1863, 1142–1152.
  105. Sierzega, M.; Pach, R.; Kulig, P.; Legutko, J.; Kulig, J. Prognostic Implications of Expression Profiling for Gemcitabine-Related Genes (HENT1, DCK, RRM1, RRM2) in Patients With Resectable Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma Receiving Adjuvant Chemotherapy. Pancreas 2017, 46, 684–689.
  106. Raffenne, J.; Nicolle, R.; Puleo, F.; Le Corre, D.; Boyez, C.; Marechal, R.; Emile, J.F.; Demetter, P.; Bardier, A.; Laurent-Puig, P.; et al. HENT1 Testing in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma: Are We Ready? A Multimodal Evaluation of HENT1 Status. Cancers 2019, 11, 1808.
  107. Bhutia, Y.D.; Hung, S.W.; Patel, B.; Lovin, D.; Govindarajan, R. CNT1 Expression Influences Proliferation and Chemosensitivity in Drug-Resistant Pancreatic Cancer Cells. Cancer Res. 2011, 71, 1825–1835.
  108. Paproski, R.J.; Yao, S.Y.M.; Favis, N.; Evans, D.; Young, J.D.; Cass, C.E.; Zemp, R.J. Human Concentrative Nucleoside Transporter 3 Transfection with Ultrasound and Microbubbles in Nucleoside Transport Deficient HEK293 Cells Greatly Increases Gemcitabine Uptake. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e56423.
  109. Hesler, R.A.; Huang, J.J.; Starr, M.D.; Treboschi, V.M.; Bernanke, A.G.; Nixon, A.B.; McCall, S.J.; White, R.R.; Blobe, G.C. TGF-β-Induced Stromal CYR61 Promotes Resistance to Gemcitabine in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma through Downregulation of the Nucleoside Transporters HENT1 and HCNT3. Carcinogenesis 2016, 37, 1041–1051.
  110. Wang, C.; Buolamwini, J.K. A Novel RNA Variant of Human Concentrative Nucleoside Transporter 1 (HCNT1) That Is a Potential Cancer Biomarker. Exp. Hematol. Oncol. 2019, 8, 18.
  111. Skrypek, N.; Vasseur, R.; Vincent, A.; Duchêne, B.; Van Seuningen, I.; Jonckheere, N. The Oncogenic Receptor ErbB2 Modulates Gemcitabine and Irinotecan/SN-38 Chemoresistance of Human Pancreatic Cancer Cells via HCNT1 Transporter and Multidrug-Resistance Associated Protein MRP-2. Oncotarget 2015, 6, 10853–10867.
  112. Skrypek, N.; Duchêne, B.; Hebbar, M.; Leteurtre, E.; van Seuningen, I.; Jonckheere, N. The MUC4 Mucin Mediates Gemcitabine Resistance of Human Pancreatic Cancer Cells via the Concentrative Nucleoside Transporter Family. Oncogene 2013, 32, 1714–1723.
  113. Maréchal, R.; Mackey, J.R.; Lai, R.; Demetter, P.; Peeters, M.; Polus, M.; Cass, C.E.; Young, J.; Salmon, I.; Devière, J.; et al. Human Equilibrative Nucleoside Transporter 1 and Human Concentrative Nucleoside Transporter 3 Predict Survival after Adjuvant Gemcitabine Therapy in Resected Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma. Clin. Cancer Res. Off. J. Am. Assoc. Cancer Res. 2009, 15, 2913–2919.
  114. Lowery, M.A.; Kelsen, D.P.; Stadler, Z.K.; Yu, K.H.; Janjigian, Y.Y.; Ludwig, E.; D’Adamo, D.R.; Salo-Mullen, E.; Robson, M.E.; Allen, P.J.; et al. An Emerging Entity: Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma Associated with a Known BRCA Mutation: Clinical Descriptors, Treatment Implications, and Future Directions. Oncologist 2011, 16, 1397–1402.
  115. Goggins, M.; Hruban, R.H.; Kern, S.E. BRCA2 Is Inactivated Late in the Development of Pancreatic Intraepithelial Neoplasia: Evidence and Implications. Am. J. Pathol. 2000, 156, 1767–1771.
  116. Rowley, M.; Ohashi, A.; Mondal, G.; Mills, L.; Yang, L.; Zhang, L.; Sundsbak, R.; Shapiro, V.; Muders, M.H.; Smyrk, T.; et al. Inactivation of Brca2 Promotes Trp53-Associated but Inhibits KrasG12D-Dependent Pancreatic Cancer Development in Mice. Gastroenterology 2011, 140, 1303–1313.e3.
  117. Skoulidis, F.; Cassidy, L.D.; Pisupati, V.; Jonasson, J.G.; Bjarnason, H.; Eyfjord, J.E.; Karreth, F.A.; Lim, M.; Barber, L.M.; Clatworthy, S.A.; et al. Germline Brca2 Heterozygosity Promotes Kras(G12D) -Driven Carcinogenesis in a Murine Model of Familial Pancreatic Cancer. Cancer Cell 2010, 18, 499–509.
  118. Moynahan, M.E.; Jasin, M. Mitotic Homologous Recombination Maintains Genomic Stability and Suppresses Tumorigenesis. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2010, 11, 196–207.
  119. Grant, R.C.; Denroche, R.E.; Borgida, A.; Virtanen, C.; Cook, N.; Smith, A.L.; Connor, A.A.; Wilson, J.M.; Peterson, G.; Roberts, N.J.; et al. Exome-Wide Association Study of Pancreatic Cancer Risk. Gastroenterology 2018, 154, 719–722.e3.
  120. Brose, M.S.; Rebbeck, T.R.; Calzone, K.A.; Stopfer, J.E.; Nathanson, K.L.; Weber, B.L. Cancer Risk Estimates for BRCA1 Mutation Carriers Identified in a Risk Evaluation Program. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2002, 94, 1365–1372.
  121. Farmer, H.; McCabe, N.; Lord, C.J.; Tutt, A.N.J.; Johnson, D.A.; Richardson, T.B.; Santarosa, M.; Dillon, K.J.; Hickson, I.; Knights, C.; et al. Targeting the DNA Repair Defect in BRCA Mutant Cells as a Therapeutic Strategy. Nature 2005, 434, 917–921.
  122. Golan, T.; Hammel, P.; Reni, M.; Van Cutsem, E.; Macarulla, T.; Hall, M.J.; Park, J.-O.; Hochhauser, D.; Arnold, D.; Oh, D.-Y.; et al. Maintenance Olaparib for Germline BRCA-Mutated Metastatic Pancreatic Cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 2019, 381, 317–327.
  123. Wattenberg, M.M.; Asch, D.; Yu, S.; O’Dwyer, P.J.; Domchek, S.M.; Nathanson, K.L.; Rosen, M.A.; Beatty, G.L.; Siegelman, E.S.; Reiss, K.A. Platinum Response Characteristics of Patients with Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma and a Germline BRCA1, BRCA2 or PALB2 Mutation. Br. J. Cancer 2020, 122, 333–339.
  124. Golan, T.; Barenboim, A.; Lahat, G.; Nachmany, I.; Goykhman, Y.; Shacham-Shmueli, E.; Halpern, N.; Brazowski, E.; Geva, R.; Wolf, I.; et al. Increased Rate of Complete Pathologic Response After Neoadjuvant FOLFIRINOX for BRCA Mutation Carriers with Borderline Resectable Pancreatic Cancer. Ann. Surg. Oncol. 2020.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Medicine, General & Internal
Contributor MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Dimitrios Moris
View Times: 497
Revisions: 3 times (View History)
Update Date: 15 Apr 2021
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    ScholarVision Creations
    Feedback