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Métioui, A. Analysing the Errors of Renowned Physicists and Chemists Throughout History and Those of Students Before and After Learning About Science. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/59517 (accessed on 14 February 2026).
Métioui A. Analysing the Errors of Renowned Physicists and Chemists Throughout History and Those of Students Before and After Learning About Science. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/59517. Accessed February 14, 2026.
Métioui, Abdeljalil. "Analysing the Errors of Renowned Physicists and Chemists Throughout History and Those of Students Before and After Learning About Science" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/59517 (accessed February 14, 2026).
Métioui, A. (2026, February 14). Analysing the Errors of Renowned Physicists and Chemists Throughout History and Those of Students Before and After Learning About Science. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/59517
Métioui, Abdeljalil. "Analysing the Errors of Renowned Physicists and Chemists Throughout History and Those of Students Before and After Learning About Science." Encyclopedia. Web. 14 February, 2026.
Peer Reviewed
Analysing the Errors of Renowned Physicists and Chemists Throughout History and Those of Students Before and After Learning About Science
This is a peer-reviewed entry published in Encyclopedia Journal, full entry can be found at 10.3390/encyclopedia6020033

In the present qualitative study, we first synthesize research to clarify the concept of error in science as developed by epistemologists, philosophers, and historians. We also examine the concept of error in educational science, drawing from studies on science learning and teaching. To do this, we analyzed references found through a systematic review of books and journals. We also selected published articles on the history of physics and chemistry and consulted documents authored by scientists in English or in official translations. We guided our selection by choosing sources relevant to conceptualizing error in scientific and educational contexts. Our key findings show two categories of scientific error: those that have contributed to scientific progress and those that have hindered it. Some renowned scientists, such as Aristotle and Buridan, put forward theories of force and movement that were later shown to be false. However, these errors did not always impede scientific advancement. This research highlights how scientific errors have shaped the evolution of science and reveals insights into the scientific process and the resilience of the scientific community. In science education, researchers use various terms such as “student naïve reasoning,” “students’ alternative conceptions,” “students’ alternative theory,” and “misconceptions.” Students’ errors, like scientific errors, can be classified into two categories. The first type involves errors from distractions, misunderstandings, or unintentional mistakes. The second type results from students’ interactions with many natural and man-made phenomena, the common language used in society (which differs from scientific language), and errors passed down by teachers or found in textbooks. Finally, we note that identifying errors among scientists and students supports the development of strategy-based teaching for meaningful science learning. From this perspective, students will be pleased to know that some of their conceptions of force and motion are “similar” to those developed by Aristotle and Buridan, even if these conceptions are false relative to those developed by Galileo and Newton. Recognizing both scientists’ and students’ errors is essential for creating teaching strategies that promote deeper science learning.

scientists’ errors students’ errors positive errors negative errors learning science teaching conceptual conflict
Science education researchers widely recognize that educators are essential for helping students understand the core conceptual challenges inherent in scientific progress [1][2][3][4]. Notably, van Ravenzwaaij et al. [3] highlight two pervasive types of scientific error: bias arising from non-scientific factors, such as career ambitions or the peer-review process, and errors stemming from mistakes and inaccuracies within the research itself (p. 2).
Although errors are often viewed negatively, they serve as powerful tools for teaching the true, multifaceted Nature of Science (NOS). Hacieminoğlu [5] found that teachers hesitate to use history in science teaching mainly because overloaded curricula cause them to dismiss historical elements as unnecessary (p. 355). However, making historical content central is not optional—it is necessary to deepen engagement with NOS and foster future scientific thinkers.
Abimbola [6] and other constructivist scholars emphasize the critical role of students’ input in science education. Rather than viewing students as passive ‘empty vessels,’ this approach sees them as active contributors. Kaliampos et al. [7] reinforce this by noting that students are not devoid of understanding, but rather bring existing ideas about scientific concepts, share experiences, and ask questions. Many studies in science education examine the conceptual difficulties students face in physics, chemistry, biology, and related subjects. The mistakes students make are significant, reflecting alternative theories and personal preconceptions that differ from accepted scientific perspectives. These student-generated theories often contrast sharply with official explanations, as we will see later in the section “Students’ errors”. These pre-existing ideas, often overlooked, are not only significant but also essential to the construction of knowledge in science education, inspiring and motivating educators and students alike.
What kinds of errors should we consider in learning and teaching? Bachelard [8], a French philosopher of science, explores error in the construction of scientific concepts. For him, the scientific spirit builds on rectified errors. He distinguished between two categories: negative error and positive error. For example, a negative error could be a student misinterpreting a concept due to fatigue (Van Ravenzwaaij et al. [3]). A positive error could be a researcher’s mistake in an experiment that leads to a new discovery or an erroneous theory.
Building on Bachelard’s distinction, negative error comes from distraction and is only temporary. In contrast, positive error, or helpful error, is an epistemological obstacle. Migne [9] sees positive error as inspiring researchers in science teaching rather than as a sign.
Many researchers highlighted the use of historical examples to illustrate the constructive role of errors in scientific discoveries [1][8][10]. For instance, they argue that scientific error is not simply a flaw but an essential driver of knowledge and progress. Rather than an obstacle, error is central to the construction of scientific knowledge. For example, Newton’s reflecting telescope and Becquerel’s discovery of natural radioactivity both illustrate this point. As we will explore in the section “Scientists’ errors,” many renowned scientists made mistakes that did not prevent them from advancing science; in fact, these errors enabled others to make major further contributions.
From an epistemological perspective, these cases show how errors and false theories can advance scientific knowledge. Errors are not setbacks but catalysts for major advances. In teaching and learning, physicist Lévy-Leblond [11] praises false theories and values exploring fields beyond standard school curricula. This urges readers to keep an open mind in scientific pursuits.

References

  1. Tinbergen, J. The role of errors in scientific development. Rev. Soc. Econ. 1988, 46, 225–230.
  2. Seker, H. The instructional model for using history of science. Educ. Sci. Theory Pract. 2012, 12, 1152–1158.
  3. van Ravenzwaaij, D.; Bakker, M.; Heesen, R.; Romero, F.; van Dongen, N.; Crüwell, S.; Field, S.M.; Held, L.; Munafò, M.R.; Pittelkow, M.M.; et al. Perspectives on scientific error. R. Soc. Open Sci. 2023, 10, 230448.
  4. Gelir, I.; Al-Salmi, L. The role of teachers in, and the importance of, self-discovery for developing science process skills. Early Years 2025, 1–16.
  5. Hacieminoğlu, E. How In-service Science Teachers Integrate History and Nature of Science in Elementary Science Courses. Educ. Sci. Theory Pract. 2014, 14, 353–372.
  6. Abimbola, I.O. The problem of terminology of the study of student conceptions in science. Sci. Educ. 1988, 72, 175–184.
  7. Kaliampos, G.; Pantidos, P.; Grivopoulos, K.; Ravanis, K. Teaching electromagnetism: Interviewing three Greek high-school teachers. Mediterr. J. Educ. 2021, 1, 66–77.
  8. Bachelard, G. The Formation of Scientific Mind; First Published in 1938; Jones, M.M., Translator; Clinamen Press: Manchester, UK, 2002.
  9. Migne, J. Les obstacles épistémologiques et la formation des concepts (Epistemological obstacles and concept formation). Éducation Perm. 1969, 2, 39–65.
  10. Alchin, D. Teaching the Nature of Science through Scientific Errors. Sci. Educ. 2012, 96, 904–926.
  11. Lévy-Leblond, J.-M. Éloge des théories fausses (In Praise of False Theories). Eur. J. Phys. 1980, 1, 248–252.
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