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Introduction

The issue of preserving one’s original identity remains a key objective for every ethnic group in a multicultural country like Malaysia. Similarly, the matter of social harmony among university students in Malaysia frequently draws attention in mainstream media reports. According to Amirul et al. (2021, 46), a significant number of students still tend to socialize within their own ethnic groups, resulting in limited interethnic interaction. Consequently, stereotypes and prejudices brought from outside the campus environment also negatively affect the atmosphere of unity at universities. The polarization of students along racial and religious lines is seen as one of the challenges faced in efforts to foster unity in institutions of higher learning. Although the level of unity practices on campus is still considered moderate, this reflects the existence of certain gaps among university students that need to be addressed comprehensively (Nor Hayati et al., 2023, 31). Therefore, this study aims to identify the level of knowledge, attitudes, and awareness among university students regarding cross-religious and cross-cultural social responsibility. Secondly, it seeks to analyze the factors that encourage students in higher education institutions (HEIs) to participate in Cross-Religious Social Responsibility (CESR) programs, which are seen as an important mechanism for strengthening social interaction and fostering interfaith relationships on campus.

Literature Review

The process of fostering interreligious harmony often faces various obstacles, such as cultural differences, prejudice, and a lack of understanding of other faiths. These challenges can create communication gaps and potentially lead to conflict among communities. Religion plays a vital role in shaping values of social justice, empathy, and harmony (Berger & Luckman, 1991, 77). In a pluralistic society, religious values can serve as a foundation for mutual understanding among people of different faiths. Active participation in interfaith community activities enhances social awareness and tolerance (Azarudin et al., 2021, 62), while spontaneous interactions in a positive environment can reduce prejudice (Nur Hidayah, 2021, 27). Interfaith dialogue is also an effective means of fostering understanding and cooperation (Abu-Nimer, 2001, 688). Joint community service activities, such as disaster relief efforts, help to build trust and mutual appreciation among participants (Nur Syafiqah Sallehudin et al., 2025, 46). A collaborative interfaith approach can also address shared social issues, including poverty and discrimination (Titin Wulandari, 2024).

Certainly, a good level of knowledge and understanding of the importance of participating in CESR within the community positively impacts the participants. Such activities not only create opportunities for cooperation but also nurture individuals to be more open, caring, and empathetic toward arising differences. Therefore, Abu-Nimer (2001, 695) emphasizes that through the ‘meet the other’ approach based on shared values, students and communities can enhance their understanding of others’ diverse backgrounds and eliminate stereotypes and discrimination. Moreover, student participation in CESR activities at the school or university level has been proven to strengthen unity and a sense of togetherness in the pluralistic context of higher education (Intan Suria, 2022, 76).

This awareness fosters values of tolerance and interfaith cooperation, as seen in Suraya’s (2024) study, which found that interfaith collaboration occurs harmoniously within families in Sabah, Malaysia. Family members from various faiths jointly celebrate festivals through community work activities. Meanwhile, Arfah (2022, 157) states that interfaith dialogue approaches in Malaysia help reduce prejudice and foster deeper understanding between diverse communities through collaborative activities. Religious education emphasizing tolerance and openness positively influences individuals' attitudes toward diversity, encouraging direct involvement in social responsibility activities even when communities have different religious backgrounds (Nur Farhana & Nur Solehah, 2022, 28). Religious leaders also play a significant role in motivating and encouraging their followers to participate in promoting social harmony. This is because religious communities that support CESR involvement act as catalysts for unity that transcends faith and cultural boundaries (Nur Farhana et al., 2020, 170–171). Thus, inclusive religious teachings, combined with community support and proactive leadership, can shape a more caring, empathetic, and united society capable of jointly addressing social challenges through various forms of cooperation despite members’ diverse religious and cultural backgrounds.

In Malaysia, collaborative initiatives involving multiple religions have been undertaken by various government bodies and NGOs to strengthen national unity through experiential learning and meaningful social interaction (Ahmad Munawar Ismail and Nur Azwanie, 2024, pp. 8–9). Nevertheless, the motivation to participate in these activities often stems from the teachings of their respective religions, which promote universal values such as compassion, empathy, social justice, and harmony. In Islam, the concepts of ta’aruf and ukhuwah insaniyyah form the basis for cross-cultural interaction (Nur Hidayah, 2021, 25); in Christianity, teachings of love and service to others encourage followers to engage in community activities (Nafis et al., 2023, 46); while in Buddhism and Hinduism, the principles of karuna (compassion) and dharma (moral responsibility) also foster active involvement in helping others regardless of religion or ethnicity (Adnyana & Wulandari, 2024, 122).

Awareness to build more harmonious and respectful relationships is highlighted by Sintang et al. (2024, 295) through experiences in communal activities such as gotong-royong (mutual cooperation) and other community efforts. Suraya et al.’s study also found that programs like community health initiatives and leadership camps involving diverse ethnic groups can enhance empathy, reduce stereotypes, and cultivate inclusive leadership among youth. Furthermore, interfaith involvement gives students the opportunity to better understand the norms, beliefs, and practices of other communities, thereby strengthening social integration (Azarudin et al., 2019, 41). Therefore, religiously-based motivation is an essential element that not only drives participation but also contributes to forming a more united and tolerant society.

Activities such as interfaith dialogue, volunteer programs, community mutual cooperation (gotong-royong) involving different religious and cultural groups, and visits to places of worship from various religions help strengthen mutual understanding among individuals from diverse backgrounds. The experiences gained through meetings, communication, consensus, and understanding have a meaningful impact on building a more inclusive society, enhancing openness, and fostering leadership that transcends religious and cultural boundaries, as explained in Enizahura’s study (2022, 46–47). However, individual participation in CESR activities is also influenced by their immediate surroundings. Support from peers and family plays a crucial role in encouraging individuals to engage in such activities. Studies show that strong social support can boost self-confidence and motivation to join programs promoting interreligious harmony. A supportive environment that acknowledges diversity in life increases individual awareness and understanding to collaborate in activities (Nur Najwa et al., 2023, p. 2; Nur Farhana & Nor Solehah, 2022, 42). Moreover, respected figures such as politicians or religious leaders serve as motivators for others to get involved in social activities, including those that bring together members from various religious and cultural backgrounds (Zaiduffin and Mohd Salleh, 2024, 5–6). Additionally, social media acts as a significant platform for disseminating information and raising awareness about the importance of such activities in a multicultural society (Azarudin & Khadijah, 2016, 49). The main motivation for engaging in volunteer activities is the desire to help others and gain new experiences, which contribute to enjoyment and personal satisfaction. Naturally, individuals tend to choose organizations they support or trust, as organizations whose values and missions align with an individual's beliefs increase the desire to participate in the social activities they organize (Hapsah et al., 2018, 85).

Participation in CESR provides individuals with satisfaction because it helps strengthen social relationships and broadens understanding among various groups. Although individuals involved in CESR may face challenges such as conflicts or differences in cultural and religious values, active participation in these activities can enhance their ability to collaborate with people from different religious and cultural backgrounds (Enizahura, 2022, 45). A study by Mohd Isa et al. (2025, 311–312) shows that a deeper understanding of other religions can foster respect and appreciation for diversity. Participants involved in social responsibility activities often ensure that the activities they join do not contradict their religious teachings, so that the principles of their religion and the objectives of the social activities remain aligned (Mohd Isa et al., 2025, 311). To avoid any controversies or conflicts that may arise in interfaith activities, individuals consult experts or religious leaders about their views on participation in such activities (Mohd Yusof Marlon et al., 2025, 124).

Universities play a significant role in nurturing cross-cultural social responsibility by providing courses, training, and opportunities for involvement in social activities that engage people from diverse religious and cultural backgrounds. Research also indicates that universities offering modules related to social responsibility and providing adequate resources, such as funding and information, help strengthen students’ commitment to participating in CESR, which in turn promotes societal harmony. Organizing activities like interfaith forums, dialogues on civilization, and volunteer activities across ethnic groups enables students to broaden their understanding of the beliefs and cultures of peers from different backgrounds (Mohd Isa et al., 2025, 311). University education has successfully exposed students to the knowledge they should have and opportunities to engage in various social activities that interest them. By providing these opportunities, universities not only help build positive relationships among students but also play a role in strengthening social cooperation beyond the campus (Noor Azizah et al., 2022, 92). Such activities not only enhance social integration, foster closer relationships, and build trust among students but also contribute to the formation of a more inclusive and harmonious society rooted in understanding and respect for religious and cultural differences (Solihah et al., 2022, 30).

However, for university students, their involvement in CESR is influenced by various factors such as having sufficient time, clear information about the activities, external support, as well as the individual’s personal interests and values. Certainly, an imbalance in managing study time and leisure time, for example, can cause stress and low motivation to participate in any form of social responsibility activities (Arnida et al., 2021, 18). Usually, free time is used for entertaining activities that aim to achieve happiness and emotional satisfaction. Studies show that those who have enough time, interest, and accurate information are more likely to participate in such activities (Ruhil Naznin et al., 2023, 53). In addition, support from family, community, and peers also plays an important role in encouraging involvement in these social activities (Michael, 2023, 37). A high level of interest and an open attitude towards religious and cultural diversity further increase participation in these activities (Mohamad, 2018). Motivation derived from religion also has a significant impact on participation, where values such as justice, empathy, and tolerance encourage individuals to engage in activities that contribute to social harmony (Mohamad Isa et al., 2025, 321). In this context, involvement in CESR activities benefits individuals by increasing understanding and fostering positive relationships among multi-religious communities (Azarudin et al., 2021, 63).

Methodology

This study employs a quantitative approach, with data collected through questionnaires distributed to students at selected universities, namely UiTM, USM, UKM, UM, UniSZA, UMS, and UUM. The sample consisted of 489 students. Based on the table provided by Krejcie and Morgan (1970), for a population size of 10,000, a sample size of 384 is sufficient. Therefore, the obtained sample size of 489 exceeds the recommended target suggested by Krejcie and Morgan (1970). Descriptive statistical analysis was used to analyze the items in the questionnaire. Smart PLS version 4.0.9.2 software was used to test and analyze the data. The data were analyzed using a direct testing method involving eight independent variables (Knowledge, Awareness, Religious Motivation, Current Experience, Social Influence, Attitude, Role of University, and Self-Motivation) and one dependent variable, Cross-Religious Social Responsibility (CESR).

This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of Universiti Teknologi MARA and international research guidelines. Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. The authors confirm that the research is free from plagiarism, data fabrication, or any form of scientific misconduct. Ethical approval was granted by the Institutional Review Board of UiTM (REC/10/2024 (ST/MR/219)

A total of 64 questions were asked to students at six selected universities in Malaysia. Some of the questions include:

Knowledge

1. Religion helps to foster social justice and harmony.
2. Barriers such as culture and prejudice exist between communities.
3. Understanding other religions can improve mutual understanding.
4. Social responsibility across religions increases tolerance and appreciation.
5. Cross-religious social activities promote peace and harmony.
6. Social activities can reduce prejudice.
7. Social activities have a positive impact when involving multiple religions and ethnicities.
8. Cross-religious social responsibility helps address social challenges.

Awareness

1. I understand the meaning of social responsibility.
2. I am aware that cross-religious/cultural social responsibility builds an inclusive society.
3. I am aware that it can enhance harmony in a multicultural society.
4. I am aware that it helps reduce prejudice and discrimination.
5. I am aware it makes me more caring and open-minded.
6. I understand that this involvement strengthens unity among students of different backgrounds.
7. I believe it can reduce prejudice between religions.
8. I am aware it increases empathy and understanding towards people of different religions.

Religious Motivation

1. My religion teaches the importance of helping regardless of race or religion.
2. Religious education raises awareness about interfaith harmony.
3. My religious teachings encourage tolerance and acceptance of diversity.
4. Religious leaders motivate about harmony and social responsibility.
5. My religion encourages helping those of different faiths.
6. My religious community encourages involvement in interfaith activities.
7. My religious community is open to cooperation with other religions.
8. I often participate in social activities organized by my religious community together with other religions.

Current Experience (At least as participants)

1. Interfaith and intercultural dialogues.
2. Volunteer programs involving various religions and ethnicities.
3. Community gotong-royong (mutual help) with different religious/cultural groups.
4. Visits to places of worship of different religions.
5. Distribution of aid to groups of different religions/ethnicities.
6. Joint celebration of religious festivals.
7. Community health programs involving multiple races/religions.
8. Leadership camps involving various ethnic and religious groups.

Social Influence

1. Friends’ involvement inspires me to participate.
2. I receive support from friends to participate in interfaith/cultural activities.
3. Family support gives me confidence to get involved.
4. My community encourages interaction and understanding across religions/cultures.
5. Community influence affects my decision to participate.
6. Respected figures/influencers influence my participation.
7. Social media campaigns motivate me to get involved.
8. I tend to join activities organized by organizations I support.

Attitude

1. I believe cross-religious/cultural social responsibility is important to build a harmonious society.
2. Participation in interfaith/cultural activities gives me personal satisfaction.
3. I am able to face challenges when involved in social activities.
4. I am willing to work with individuals from different religious backgrounds.
5. I am ready to face challenges or conflicts in interfaith activities.
6. I believe understanding other religions is important for social harmony.
7. I ensure social activities do not conflict with my religious teachings.
8. I will consult experts before participating to avoid any controversies.

Role of University

1. My university offers courses related to social responsibility.
2. I have attended training about social responsibility at university.
3. My university encourages students to understand the importance of cross-religious/cultural social responsibility.
4. The university provides opportunities for students to participate in interfaith/cultural activities.
5. The university provides sufficient resources for interfaith/cultural activities.
6. The university supports student clubs related to cross-religious/cultural social responsibility.
7. Interfaith/cultural activities organized by the university have a positive impact on student relationships.
8. University involvement strengthens students’ relationships with the wider community.

Self-Motivation

1. I have enough time to participate in interfaith/cultural activities.
2. I have clear information about the activities organized.
3. I receive support from various parties to get involved.
4. I am interested in joining interfaith/cultural activities.
5. I am open-minded and fair towards others.
6. My religion motivates me to participate in these activities.
7. I gain many benefits from these activities.
8. My personal values influence my involvement in these activities.

After the questionnaires were collected a total of 40, a validity and reliability test of the data was conducted using Cronbach’s alpha value. According to Sekaran (1992, 138), the Cronbach’s alpha value should exceed 0.60 for each variable, while factor loadings below 0.5 will be excluded (Hair et al., 2014, 14). Table 1.1 presents the validity and reliability test results.

TABLE 1.1: Validity and Reliability Test

(Source: Extracted from data analysis using Smart PLS 4 on 20 February 2025)

Results

Subsequently, multicollinearity and factor loading tests were conducted on the questionnaire items using the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) and factor loading values as indicators. The VIF value must not exceed 10, as values below 10 indicate no serious multicollinearity issues. Conversely, if the VIF exceeds 10, the item will be excluded. Meanwhile, the factor loading value should be 0.50 or higher (Hair et al., 2012, 322). Table 1.2 presents the results of the multicollinearity test using VIF values.

This test examines the values of component loadings (CV), Cronbach’s alpha (α), Composite Reliability (CR), Average Variance Extracted (AVE), Coefficient of Determination (R²), regression coefficient (β), p-value, and t-value. Table 1.3 presents the results of these tests. Table 1.6 shows the factor analysis test involving the payment factor and CESR, including values for CV, Cronbach’s alpha, CR, AVE, R², β, p-value, and t-value.

TABLE 1.3: Factor Analysis Test

(Source: Extracted from data analysis using Smart PLS 4 on 17 February 2025)

Based on the analysis in Table 1.3, the data were abstracted into a direct effects model as illustrated in Figure 1.1, which shows the direct relationships with Cross-Religious Social Responsibility (CESR).

FIGURE 1.1: Direct Relationships with Cross-Religious Social Responsibility (CESR)

(Source: Extracted from data analysis using Smart PLS 4 on 20 February 2025)

Table 1.4: Direct Relationship Test with CESR

Based on the direct relationship test of factors on CESR, four variables showed a significant effect based on the t-values, namely the Awareness factor (2.119), Current Experience (3.325), Knowledge factor (1.976), and the Role of Universities factor (2.012).

Discussion

The study found that university students have a very high level of knowledge about CESR. This is supported by strong statistical values, including factor loadings exceeding 0.7 and an AVE of 0.952. Students acknowledged that religious teachings play an important role in fostering values of social justice and harmony in a society with diverse beliefs. Differences in culture and prejudice can be overcome through a good understanding of religious teachings. Therefore, student involvement in CESR can help nurture values of tolerance, reduce discrimination, and promote peace.

Nonetheless, university students with high knowledge of CESR demonstrate awareness of information regarding other religions and cultures in their daily lives. In conclusion, this knowledge makes them more prepared to interact with others from different backgrounds and to accept the reality of diversity in life. Surely, they can serve as role models for their peers in fostering values of togetherness inherent in each belief system to stimulate harmonious living, both within the university and beyond the campus. The above findings are in line with the research conducted by Abu-Nimer (2001), which stated that knowing shared values can shape empathy and openness. Moreover, activities that build togetherness can strengthen relationships among various communities and help address social challenges that occur regardless of religion. Overall, a high level of knowledge about social activities involving participants from various religions or cultures paves the way for building a more harmonious and united society.

High awareness of the importance of involvement in CESR among students is evidenced by a reliability coefficient of 0.954 and a highly significant mean value. Students not only have a good understanding of the meaning of social responsibility but also realize that their involvement in CESR acts as a catalyst for building an inclusive society, strengthening unity, and reducing prejudice and discrimination. Awareness of participation in CESR plays a crucial role in shaping a more caring and open attitude, while enhancing empathy and understanding towards peers of different religions. In conclusion, tendencies towards exclusivism or prejudice can easily occur in university environments that have limited exposure to CESR. In this regard, students need not only to excel academically but also to possess a high social sensitivity towards the difficulties faced by others, even those with different beliefs and religions. Taking into account the role of higher education institutions as agents of social change becomes more significant when there is student commitment to promoting harmony and inclusivity within society. Therefore, educational programs that incorporate interfaith experiences such as community service, dialogue forums, and social integration modules can help strengthen respect and empathy beginning at the tertiary education level. This study is supported by research conducted by Arfah (2022), which states that interfaith dialogue in Malaysia plays a role in reducing prejudice and fostering understanding between communities. Similarly, a study by Nur Farhana & Nur Solehah (2022) found that religious education emphasizing values of tolerance and openness also has a positive effect on individuals' willingness to participate in social responsibility activities with communities of different faiths. Thus, this high level of awareness not only reflects a deep understanding of social responsibility values but also serves as an important foundation in strengthening unity through interfaith cooperation in Malaysia.

Religious motivation serves as a significant driver encouraging students to participate in CESR activities. Items such as “My religion teaches the importance of helping others regardless of skin color or belief” (MTV1) and “Religious leaders motivate me about the importance of interfaith harmony” (MTV4) reflect how religious values partly shape students’ awareness and willingness to engage in CESR. These findings align with previous research by Ahmad Munawar Ismail and Nur Azwanie (2024), which emphasizes the role of social interaction programs and experiential learning in enhancing interfaith understanding. As argued by Nur Hidayah (2021), the Islamic concepts of ta’aruf (mutual recognition) and ukhuwah insaniyyah (human brotherhood) encourage CESR to be carried out harmoniously, while the values of love, service, and compassion in other religions similarly exert positive influence. Universal values such as justice, empathy, and tolerance, as expressed in items MTV5, MTV6, and MTV8, form the foundation of this religious motivation. This demonstrates that religious motivation is not only a strong intrinsic drive but also functions as a source for cultivating students’ moral and ethical values. Consequently, it encourages active student participation in building an inclusive, harmonious, and prosperous society. These findings are consistent with those reported by Sintang et al. (2024) and Azarudin et al. (2019). Therefore, the integration of religious values in education should be continuously strengthened to promote more effective and meaningful involvement of university students in CESR.

The current experience of student involvement in CESR shows relatively high scores, with indicators such as participation in interfaith/intercultural dialogues (EXP1 = 0.686) and involvement in multiracial/religious leadership camps (EXP8 = 0.771) reflecting positive engagement. It can be explained that students’ active participation in programs oriented towards unity, social inclusion, and interaction among diverse religious or cultural communities serves as an indicator of their social maturity. This suggests that educational institutions not only function to impart academic knowledge but also play a crucial role in shaping citizens who are sensitive to the needs of a pluralistic society. These findings support the study by Enizahura (2022, 46–47), which states that direct involvement in activities such as dialogues, volunteer programs, community clean-ups, visits to places of worship, aid distribution, and celebrations of various religious festivals can strengthen mutual understanding among individuals from diverse backgrounds. Life experiences and a conducive social environment play vital roles in nurturing values of harmony, enhancing openness, and building leadership spirit that transcends religious and cultural boundaries. Therefore, the results derived from these engagement scores not only reinforce the effectiveness of practical approaches in fostering social harmony but also highlight the importance of aligning theory with practice in addressing the challenges of social interaction within a multiethnic and multireligious context.

Social influence plays a significant role in motivating individuals to participate in cross-religious and cross-cultural social responsibility activities. Items such as support from peers (IFU1, IFU2), family members (IFU3), local communities (IFU4, IFU5), respected figures, and social media campaigns (IFU6, IFU7) show high factor loadings exceeding 0.76, thereby confirming the validity of this construct. In dealing with complex and pluralistic societies, social support—whether from family, peers, community, or influential leaders—can foster motivation among students to actively engage in efforts to build harmony among diverse groups. Approaches emphasizing universal values such as respect and social justice can nurture a generation that is not only aware of diversity but also willing to use it as a foundation for collaboration to strengthen societal harmony. Therefore, education on ‘shared values’ and ‘social awareness training’ serves as essential tools that can transcend the limitations of traditional social influences. These findings align with studies by Nur Najwa et al. (2023) and Nur Farhana & Nor Solehah (2022), which emphasize that supportive social environments, such as those formed by peers and family, can enhance individuals’ motivation and confidence to engage in interfaith cooperative activities. Research by Zaiduffin and Mohd Salleh (2024) further shows that influential individuals, such as religious leaders and politicians, can inspire participation in multi-religious social activities. The role of social media as a message dissemination tool should also not be underestimated, as highlighted by Azarudin & Khadijah (2015), where online campaigns have proven effective in raising modern society’s awareness about the importance of interfaith interaction. Finally, support for specific organizations (IFU8) also acts as a catalyst for involvement, as the alignment of an organization’s values and mission with individuals’ personal beliefs fosters a more consistent spirit of volunteerism (Hapsah et al., 2018). In conclusion, social influence is clearly a key driver in shaping open attitudes toward participation in cross-religious and cross-cultural social responsibility programs.

Based on the findings of the ATT (Attitude) items, which cover aspects of readiness, understanding, and commitment toward involvement in cross-religious/cultural social responsibility activities, it was found that respondents exhibited a highly positive and open attitude toward religious and cultural diversity. The high factor loading values (exceeding 0.75) for all ATT items, including ATT2 (self-satisfaction) and ATT6 (the belief that understanding other religions fosters social harmony), further support this. Meanwhile, the high scores on ATT7 and ATT8 indicate respondents’ sensitivity toward the alignment of CESR activities with their respective religious principles. It is clear that students’ attitudes toward CESR are shaped through continuous exposure and meaningful experiences within an inclusive social environment. In this context, both formal and informal education play an important role in building critical awareness and intercultural sensitivity. When students are given opportunities to interact directly with groups from different backgrounds, they tend to develop more balanced perceptions and reduce stereotyping. Therefore, strategically designed programs like CESR can serve as effective platforms for fostering open attitudes and empathy toward communities of different faiths and practices. Social harmony depends not only on intergroup interactions but also on students’ ability to evaluate the appropriateness of social actions in accordance with the values they uphold. Hence, involvement in such activities should be planned inclusively, taking religious sensitivities into account, to encourage not only broader participation but also the cultivation of mutual respect and trust among religious communities. The findings above support previous studies which indicate that involvement in CESR not only has a positive personal impact but also strengthens social networks among communities (Enizahura, 2022; Mohd Isa et al., 2025). Additionally, Mohd Isa et al. (2025) and Mohd Yusof Marlon et al. (2025) note that Muslim individuals tend to consult religious experts before participating in such activities. Although the correlation scores with awareness (AWR) show a moderate relationship (correlation values of 0.125–0.135), these findings still demonstrate that a positive attitude can be formed even when the level of awareness is not yet fully high.

Universities play a crucial role in fostering harmonious living among students. The findings indicate that students acknowledge that universities not only offer relevant courses or training (UNI1, UNI2) but also provide adequate resources such as funding, information, and facilities (UNI5), as well as actively promote the importance of CESR (UNI3, UNI4). This is supported by a high composite reliability coefficient (CR = 0.946) and strong factor loadings, confirming that the role of the university has a positive impact on student involvement. Moreover, institutional support for student clubs or organizations active in interfaith programs (UNI6), along with the direct effects of these activities on student harmony (UNI7, UNI8), demonstrates that universities serve as agents of social change. It can be stated that universities in Malaysia function as platforms for shaping holistic and competitive individuals academically, socially, and morally. Campus life experiences that bring together students from diverse cultural and religious backgrounds can serve as a catalyst for strengthening values of tolerance and empathy. However, the effectiveness of this role depends on the institution’s ability to foster a campus culture that supports interactions across ethnic and religious boundaries and provides a consistent, equity-oriented support ecosystem. Therefore, the university’s role is not only as a provider of opportunities but also as a driver of mindset transformation by instilling awareness that diversity is not a threat but a source of strength in a pluralistic society. This study aligns with the assertion by Noor Azizah et al. (2022, 92) that universities offering such opportunities can build positive relationships among students and strengthen social cooperation across campuses. As noted by Solihah et al. (2022, 30), this role contributes toward the formation of a more inclusive and harmonious society based on values of tolerance and appreciation of religious and cultural diversity.

Student self-motivation plays a crucial role in their involvement in interfaith social responsibility activities. Respondents who have the time, interest, information, and positive personal values such as empathy and tolerance are more likely to participate in CESR. This demonstrates that the maturity of students in choosing to engage in such interfaith social initiatives reflects their ability to make autonomous decisions. Thus, students do not merely respond to institutional directives but act based on self-awareness and value-based considerations. This capability is undoubtedly important in cultivating future leaders who can act responsibly within a diverse society. Therefore, student involvement should be understood not only through the lens of motivation but also as a sign of emerging agents of change driven by strong principles and deep moral awareness. This aligns with previous studies (Ruhil Naznin et al., 2023; Mohamad Isa et al., 2025) which emphasize that intrinsic motivation and religious support enhance participation in interfaith activities. The high reliability values for the self-motivation factor (CR=0.945, AVE=0.721) further confirm the importance of self-motivation as a key factor for participation.

Conclusion

This study successfully identified the level of knowledge, attitudes, and awareness of university students towards CESR, which overall falls within the moderate to high range. The findings show that the majority of students hold positive attitudes towards the values of harmony, openness, and cooperation across religions and cultures, reflecting an increasing understanding of the importance of inclusive living in a pluralistic society.

Furthermore, the study analyzed the roles of religious factors, social influence, and higher education institutions in encouraging student involvement in CESR activities. The results indicate that balanced religious motivation, support from peers, family, and community leaders, as well as the holistic approach of universities in nurturing civic and humanitarian values, play crucial roles in strengthening student engagement in efforts to foster social harmony. In summary, this study emphasizes that cross-religious and cross-cultural cooperation should be enhanced through value-based education, social support, and integrated institutional involvement.

This study shows that CESR programs can serve as an important strategy to strengthen social harmony through higher education and provide useful guidance for stakeholders in designing more inclusive student development programs. For future research, the scope can be expanded to the wider community using longitudinal and qualitative approaches to observe the real impact and gain a clearer understanding of interreligious interactions.

Acknowledges

The researcher would like to express sincere gratitude to FRGS/1/2023/SS10/UITM/02/26 under the Ministry of Higher Education and 600-RMC/FRGS 5/3 (053/2023) under Universiti Teknologi Mara for providing funding for the conducted research.

Declarations

Funding: The author declares that this study received no funding from any organization. Ethics Statement: All procedures were conducted in compliance with relevant ethical principles, guidelines, and regulations.

Conflict of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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