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Reeder, P. Two Geophysical Technologies Used in Archaeological Research Simplified and Explained. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/59012 (accessed on 05 December 2025).
Reeder P. Two Geophysical Technologies Used in Archaeological Research Simplified and Explained. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/59012. Accessed December 05, 2025.
Reeder, Philip. "Two Geophysical Technologies Used in Archaeological Research Simplified and Explained" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/59012 (accessed December 05, 2025).
Reeder, P. (2025, September 16). Two Geophysical Technologies Used in Archaeological Research Simplified and Explained. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/59012
Reeder, Philip. "Two Geophysical Technologies Used in Archaeological Research Simplified and Explained." Encyclopedia. Web. 16 September, 2025.
Peer Reviewed
Two Geophysical Technologies Used in Archaeological Research Simplified and Explained
This is a peer-reviewed entry published in Encyclopedia Journal, full entry can be found at 10.3390/encyclopedia5030151

The geophysical techniques ground penetrating radar (GPR) and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) are commonly used data collection methodologies in numerous disciplines, including archaeology. Many researchers are now, or will be in the future, associated with projects that use these geophysical techniques, but who are not well versed in the instrumentation, its function, related terminology, data interpretation, and outcomes. This entry outlines the general approach and background for completing this type of research, dissects the methodology from a completed geoarchaeological project that uses both GPR and ERT, and provides concise definitions and explanations for all facets of the methodology. Based on this methodology, 21 terms or concepts related to GPR are explained in detail, as are 26 terms or concepts related to ERT, and visual representations of some of the terms and concepts are further illuminated via 11 figures. There are also 133 references linked to the various concepts and terms presented in this entry.

near-surface geophysics ground penetrating radar (GPR) electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) archaeological research
Geophysics is a non-intrusive, non-destructive way to study the Earth’s physical properties and processes by interpreting quantitative data collected using seismic, gravity, magnetic, electromagnetic, and electrical measurements to understand the Earth’s structure, composition, and dynamics [1]. The geophysical technologies associated with these methods are used in a variety of disciplines, which include, but are not limited to, archaeology, civil engineering, natural and geologic hazard mitigation, geologic mapping, hydrogeology (contaminant plume mapping, groundwater management), environmental assessment (monitoring, impact), forensic science, locating and recovering resources, and seismic studies. This entry focusses on archaeological geophysics, which is a growing area of research that uses, among various geophysical technologies, ground penetrating radar (GPR) and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) for the non-invasive, non-destructive investigation of near-surface environments. These methods are complementary to archaeological research because they assist with interpreting stratigraphy, the physical properties of near-surface materials, anthropogenic change, and spatial dimensional data [2].
Archaeological studies are concerned with the near-surface stratigraphy of soils and sediments present at archaeologic sites, within which objects/artifacts, now often referred to as material culture, are buried [3]. The formation of culturally influenced landscapes disrupts natural stratigraphic patterns in near-surface materials, and the nature and form of these disturbances aid archaeologists with linking the current landscape with past human activities [4]. Quantifying the physical characteristics of soils provides important information about the soil’s genesis, morphology, and classification, and also its texture, structure, consistency, plasticity, bulk density, porosity, and permeability [5]. These soil physical characteristics in turn affect the soil’s available water-holding capacity (AWHC), which influences GPR and ERT signal penetration depth, with dry, sandy soils allowing signals to penetrate deeper, while moisture-laden or saturated soils limit resistivity and thus the depth of signal penetration [6].
In recent years, archaeology has developed an approach to investigating interactions between people and their environments. A large and growing database on the cumulative impact of humans on the global environment, over a variety of timescales, now exists [7]. Much attention is now given to the integration of different geophysical techniques in order to obtain detailed interpretations to characterize archaeological constructions and artifacts [8]. Interdisciplinary collaboration enhances the investigation of archaeological sites, thus broadening the understanding of the linkages between past landscapes, people, and material culture [9].
Efforts at assessing and analyzing the spatial dimension of archaeological sites have been improved because of advances in digital technology, like geographic information systems (GIS), and electromagnetic (GPR) and electrical geophysical techniques (ERT). These advances have influenced the way archaeological data are collected in the field and subsequently processed, analyzed, and interpreted [10]. Research designs in archaeological research that include GPR and ERT methodologies can utilize sample designs that are stratified, sequential, adaptive, or non-geometric. Combining these sample designs, and GPR and ERT methodologies, with spatial analysis provides a more complete view of the spatial dimension of the collected data [11].
In the GPR and ERT Methods section below, some details related to the main companies that manufacture the instrumentation used to collect GPR and ERT data are discussed. This is followed by an explanation of the logistics and processes involved in collecting GPR and ERT data, the types of results that are generated, and how these data are interpreted. Next, a detailed GPR and ERT methodology from a published study is presented. This methodology is dissected, and the terms and concepts related to GPR and ERT data collection and processing are explained in detail in the Explanation of Terms and Concepts section. References are provided for the terms and concepts, which link to citations in the References section, and when appropriate, visual depictions are provided. The Summary, Conclusions, and Prospects section provide a summation of the most salient points presented in this entry, and it looks towards continued expansion of cross-disciplinary research utilizing geophysics in archaeological studies.

References

  1. Geological Society of America (GSA). Geophysics Overview. Center for Professional Excellence. 2025. Available online: https://careers.geosociety.org/career/geophysicist (accessed on 26 March 2025).
  2. Sarris, A.; Kalayci, T.; Moffat, I.; Manataki, M. An Introduction to Geophysical and Geochemical Methods in Digital Geoarchaeology. In Digital Geoarchaeology, Natural Science in Archaeology; Siart, C., Forbriger, M., Bumboozer, O., Eds.; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2018.
  3. Guarinello, N. Archaeology and the Meanings of Material Culture. In Global Archaeological Theory; Springer: Boston, MA, USA, 2006; pp. 19–27.
  4. Salisbury, R.; Bull, I.; Cereda, S.; Draganits, E.; Dulias, K.; Kowarik, K.; Meyer, M.; Zavala, E.; Salisbury, K. Making the Most of Soils in Archaeology. A Review. Archaeol. Austriaca 2022, 106, 319–334.
  5. Huddleston, J.; Kling, G. Manual for Judging Oregon Soils; Extension Service 1996; Oregon State University: Corvallis, OR, USA, 1996; 102p, Available online: https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/concern/open_educational_resources/3197xm437 (accessed on 20 April 2025).
  6. Capozzoli, L.; Giampaolo, G.; DeMartino, G.; Perciante, F.; Lapenna, V.; Rizzo, E. ERT and GPR Prospecting Applied to Unsaturated and Subwater Analogue Archaeological Site in a Full-Scale Laboratory. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 1126.
  7. Kirch, P. Archaeology and Global Time Change: The Holocene Record. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 2005, 30, 409–440.
  8. Deiana, R.; Leucci, G.; Martorana, R. New Perspectives on Geophysics for Archaeology: A Special Issue. Surv. Geophys. 2018, 39, 1035–1038.
  9. De Giorgi, L.; Leucci, G. The archaeological site of Sagalassos (Turkey): Exploring the mysteries of the invisible layers using geophysical methods. Explor. Geophys. 2018, 49, 751–761.
  10. Landeschi, G. Rethinking GIS, three-dimensionality, and space perception in archaeology. World Archaeol. 2019, 51, 17–32.
  11. Banning, E. Archaeological Spatial Analysis; Gillings, M., Hacıgüzeller, P., Lock, G., Eds.; Routledge: London, UK, 2020; Chapter 2; 24p.
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