1. Introduction

The relationship between society and the environment has been a fundamental concern in sociology, as human activity shapes and is shaped by the natural world. While early sociologists primarily focused on industrialization, urbanization, and economic development, modern environmental sociology examines how social and economic systems contribute to environmental crises and sustainability challenges ^[1].

Environmental sociology emerged in the 1970s as a response to growing ecological concerns, challenging the "human exceptionalism paradigm" (HEP)—the idea that humans are independent from nature. Instead, scholars introduced the "new ecological paradigm" (NEP), which views humans as deeply embedded in ecological systems ^[2].

2. Theoretical Foundations of Environmental Sociology

2.1 Classical Sociological Perspectives on the Environment

Although environmental sociology is relatively new, classical sociologists indirectly addressed environmental issues:

• Karl Marx (1867) argued that capitalist production exploits both labor and nature, leading to ecological degradation and resource depletion ^[3].
• Max Weber ^[4] analyzed how bureaucratic rationalization and industrialization drive environmental destruction, prioritizing efficiency over sustainability.
• Émile Durkheim ^[5] explored how social integration and moral regulation are necessary for environmental sustainability.

2.2 The New Ecological Paradigm (NEP)

Catton and Dunlap ^[6] proposed the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) as an alternative to the dominant Human Exceptionalism Paradigm (HEP). NEP challenges the idea that technological progress can solve all environmental problems and instead argues that:

• Humans are part of ecosystems and dependent on finite resources.
• Economic growth has ecological limits.
• Social institutions shape environmental attitudes and behaviors.

3. Key Themes in Environmental Sociology

3.1 Environmental Justice and Social Inequality

Environmental sociology highlights how environmental risks are unevenly distributed across different social groups. Environmental justice movements address issues such as:

• Pollution and toxic waste exposure disproportionately affecting low-income and minority communities ^[7].
• Climate change disproportionately impacting developing nations while wealthier nations contribute more emissions ^[8].

3.2 Political Economy and the Environment

Eco-Marxist theorists argue that capitalism's pursuit of profit leads to environmental degradation by:

• Encouraging overconsumption and resource extraction (Foster, 2000).
• Promoting "greenwashing"—corporate strategies that falsely market products as environmentally friendly ^[9].

3.3 Risk Society and Environmental Disasters

Ulrich Beck ^[10] introduced the concept of the risk society, arguing that modern industrial societies produce large-scale environmental risks (e.g., nuclear disasters, climate change, pandemics). These risks are global, unpredictable, and disproportionately affect marginalized groups.

3.4 Globalization and Environmental Change

Globalization has intensified environmental degradation through:

• Deforestation and biodiversity loss due to industrial agriculture.
• Transnational pollution and climate change caused by global industries.
• The export of hazardous waste to developing countries ^[11].

4. Environmental Social Movements and Activism

Environmental sociologists study how grassroots organizations, NGOs, and transnational advocacy networks influence environmental policies. Key movements include:

• Deep Ecology ^[12] – Advocating for intrinsic ecological value beyond human needs.
• Climate Justice Movements – Demanding accountability for carbon emissions and climate adaptation policies ^[13].
• Sustainable Development Advocacy – Promoting alternative economic models that balance growth with ecological preservation ^[14].

5. Conclusion

Environmental sociology provides critical insights into how social systems interact with ecological processes. By analyzing issues like climate change, environmental justice, political economy, and sustainability, the field highlights the social dimensions of ecological crises.

Future research will likely focus on:

• The role of artificial intelligence in environmental monitoring.
• Climate migration and social adaptation.
• Decarbonization and alternative economic models.