1. Diagnosis of Acute Pancreatitis (AP)

Q1. What criteria are used to diagnose acute pancreatitis (AP)?

• Diagnosis requires 2 out of 3 criteria:
  1. Abdominal pain consistent with pancreatitis (e.g., epigastric pain radiating to the back).
  2. Serum amylase and/or lipase levels >3 times the upper limit of normal.
  3. Characteristic findings on abdominal imaging.

Q2. Which is the preferred marker for diagnosing AP: serum amylase or lipase?

• Serum lipase is preferred due to superior sensitivity and specificity.

Q3. Does elevated amylase or lipase alone confirm the diagnosis of AP?

• No, elevated amylase/lipase without characteristic abdominal pain does not predict AP.

2. Imaging Recommendations

Q4. Should routine CT imaging be performed early or at admission for AP?

• No, routine CT imaging is not recommended unless:
  • The diagnosis remains unclear.
  • The patient fails to improve clinically within 48–72 hours of hydration and supportive care.

Q5. When is imaging indicated in AP?

• Imaging is indicated for persistent or worsening symptoms, such as fever, ongoing pain, or inability to tolerate oral intake.

Q6. What imaging modalities are recommended to evaluate complications in AP?

• Use contrast-enhanced CT or MRI to assess for complications like necrosis or pseudocysts.

3. Etiology Workup

Q7. What initial imaging should be performed to evaluate for biliary pancreatitis?

• Transabdominal ultrasound should be performed.

Q8. What test is recommended if gallstones and alcohol use are absent?

• Check serum triglycerides, especially if levels >1000 mg/dL.

Q9. What evaluation is necessary for patients over 40 years old or those with idiopathic AP?

• Evaluate for pancreatic tumors as a potential cause.

Q10. What steps should be taken if the etiology of AP remains unclear?

• Consider repeat imaging (e.g., ultrasound, MRI, or endoscopic ultrasound).

4. Initial Management

Fluid Resuscitation

Q11. What type of fluid is preferred for resuscitation in AP?

• Lactated Ringer's solution is preferred over normal saline.

Q12. How should fluid resuscitation be monitored in AP?

• Monitor for hypovolemia and avoid volume overload, particularly in patients with cardiovascular or renal comorbidities.
• Reassess fluid needs frequently during the first 24–48 hours.

Nutrition

Q13. When should oral feeding be initiated in mild AP?

• Begin early oral feeding within 24–48 hours as tolerated.

Q14. What type of diet should be started in AP?

• Use a low-fat solid diet rather than a stepwise liquid-to-solid approach.

Avoidance of Unnecessary Interventions

Q15. Should prophylactic antibiotics be given in sterile pancreatic necrosis?

• No, prophylactic antibiotics are not recommended.

Q16. Is fine-needle aspiration (FNA) recommended in suspected infected necrosis?

• FNA is not recommended unless it is necessary to guide therapy.

5. Endoscopic Retrograde Cholangiopancreatography (ERCP)

Q17. When is ERCP indicated in AP?

• Perform ERCP within 24 hours for AP complicated by cholangitis.

Q18. Should routine early ERCP be used in biliary AP without cholangitis?

• No, avoid routine early ERCP unless there is evidence of cholangitis.

6. Antibiotics and Nutrition

Q19. Are antibiotics indicated in severe AP with sterile necrosis?

• No, antibiotics should only be used if infected necrosis is confirmed.

Q20. What is the preferred route for nutrition in AP?

• Enteral nutrition is preferred over parenteral nutrition.

Q21. When should nasogastric feeding be used in severe AP?

• Use nasogastric feeding, unless contraindicated.

7. Prevention of Post-ERCP Pancreatitis (PEP)

Q22. How can post-ERCP pancreatitis be prevented in high-risk patients?

• Use rectal indomethacin.
• Consider pancreatic duct stenting in high-risk patients receiving rectal indomethacin.

8. Monitoring and Risk Stratification

Q23. What parameters should be monitored in AP?

• Regularly assess hemodynamic status, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and hematocrit.

Q24. What is the recommended clinical approach during the initial 48 hours for mild AP?

• Remain vigilant for signs of disease progression to severe AP or organ failure.

Diagnosis

Q1. Should routine CT imaging be performed early or at admission for acute pancreatitis (AP)?

• No, routine CT should not be performed early or at admission to determine the severity of AP. It is reserved for cases where the diagnosis is unclear or the patient fails to improve clinically within the first 48–72 hours after admission.

9. Etiology

Q2. What tests should be performed in the absence of gallstones or a history of alcohol use to determine the etiology of AP?

• Serum triglyceride levels should be checked and considered the etiology if levels are greater than 1,000 mg/dL.

Q3. What additional evaluation is recommended for patients older than 40 years with idiopathic AP?

• In patients older than 40 years, a pancreatic tumor should be considered as a possible cause of AP if the etiology remains unclear.

Q4. What surgical intervention is suggested for patients after a second episode of idiopathic AP?

• For patients fit for surgery, a cholecystectomy is recommended following a second episode of AP with no identifiable cause to reduce the risk of recurrence.

10. Initial Assessment and Risk Stratification

Q5. How should patients with AP be stratified for admission settings?

• Hemodynamic status and risk assessment should guide admission to either a nonmonitored bed or a monitored setting, including the ICU, depending on severity.

Q6. Where should patients with organ failure or systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) be admitted?

• Patients with organ failure and/or SIRS should preferably be admitted to a monitored bed setting.

Q7. Are scoring systems or imaging effective in predicting the development of severe AP?

• No, scoring systems and imaging alone are not reliable for predicting moderately severe or severe AP.

Q8. What is the recommended clinical approach for patients with mild AP?

• Clinicians should remain vigilant for the development of severe disease and organ failure, particularly within the first 48 hours of admission.

Q9. What are key risk factors for the development of severe AP?

• Risk factors include elevated blood urea nitrogen (BUN), hematocrit (HCT), obesity, comorbidities, and the presence of SIRS.

11. Initial Management

Q10. What fluid resuscitation strategy is recommended for AP patients, and what precautions should be taken?

• Moderately aggressive intravenous hydration with isotonic crystalloid is suggested. Caution is needed in patients with cardiovascular or renal comorbidities to avoid volume overload.

Q11. When is fluid resuscitation most critical in AP management?

• Fluid resuscitation is most important early in the disease course, ideally within the first 24 hours.

Q12. How often should fluid volume and response be reassessed in AP patients?

• Fluid volumes should be reassessed frequently, within 6 hours of presentation and throughout the next 24–48 hours, aiming to decrease BUN levels.

12. ERCP in AP

Q13. When is early ERCP indicated for AP?

• Early ERCP (within 24 hours) is indicated for AP patients with complications such as cholangitis.

Q14. Should diagnostic ERCP be used routinely for common bile duct stones in AP?

• No, MRCP or endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) should be used to screen for common bile duct stones before ERCP. Diagnostic ERCP should be avoided in the absence of cholangitis or jaundice.

13. The Role of Antibiotics in AP

Q15. Are antibiotics recommended for sterile pancreatic necrosis in AP?

• No, antibiotics should not be used for sterile pancreatic necrosis.

Q16. How should infected pancreatic necrosis be managed?

• Antibiotics that penetrate pancreatic necrosis should be used, largely to delay surgical, endoscopic, or radiologic drainage beyond 4 weeks. In some cases, the infection may resolve with antibiotics alone.

Q17. Are antifungal agents recommended alongside antibiotics in AP?

• Routine administration of antifungal agents is not needed.

14. Nutrition in AP

Q18. What type of nutrition is recommended for patients with moderately severe or severe AP?

• Enteral nutrition is preferred as it helps prevent infectious complications.

Q19. When should parenteral nutrition be used in AP?

• Parenteral nutrition should be avoided unless the enteral route is not possible, not tolerated, or does not meet caloric needs.

Q20. Which route of enteral feeding is preferred in AP?

• Nasogastric feeding is preferred over nasojejunal feeding due to comparable safety and efficacy.

15. The Role of Surgery in AP

Q21. When should patients with mild acute biliary pancreatitis undergo cholecystectomy?

• Cholecystectomy should be performed early, preferably before discharge.

Q22. What type of intervention is preferred for symptomatic pancreatic necrosis in stable patients?

• Minimally invasive methods are preferred over open surgery for debridement and necrosectomy.

Q23. When should interventions for pancreatic necrosis be delayed?

• Surgical, radiological, or endoscopic interventions should be delayed for at least 4 weeks in stable patients to allow the wall of the collection to mature.

Q1. What imaging modality is recommended to evaluate for biliary pancreatitis in acute pancreatitis (AP)?

• A transabdominal ultrasound is recommended to evaluate for biliary pancreatitis. If the initial ultrasound is inconclusive, it should be repeated. (Conditional recommendation, very low quality of evidence)

Q2. What diagnostic steps are suggested for idiopathic acute pancreatitis (IAP)?

• For IAP, additional evaluation with repeat abdominal ultrasound, MRI, and/or endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) is recommended. (Conditional recommendation, very low quality of evidence)

Q3. When should serum triglycerides (TG) be measured in AP, and what threshold indicates it as the etiology?

• Serum triglycerides should be measured in the absence of gallstones or significant alcohol use. Levels >1,000 mg/dL are indicative of hypertriglyceridemia as the etiology.

Q4. What evaluation is recommended for patients older than 40 years with AP of unknown etiology?

• In patients >40 years old, a pancreatic tumor should be considered as a possible cause, and further evaluation should be performed.

Q5. What surgical intervention is suggested after a second episode of AP with no identifiable cause?

• A cholecystectomy is suggested in patients fit for surgery to reduce the risk of recurrent AP episodes.