Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Wassim Nasri Shebaby
 -- 3771 2024-03-14 15:51:49 |
2 Reference format revised.
Lindsay Dong
 Meta information modification 3771 2024-03-15 07:27:40 |

Video Upload Options

We provide professional Video Production Services to translate complex research into visually appealing presentations. Would you like to try it?
No, upload directly Yes

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Ismail, J.; Shebaby, W.N.; Daher, J.; Boulos, J.C.; Taleb, R.; Daher, C.F.; Mroueh, M. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Wild Carrot (Daucus carota). Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/56267 (accessed on 16 November 2024).
Ismail J, Shebaby WN, Daher J, Boulos JC, Taleb R, Daher CF, et al. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Wild Carrot (Daucus carota). Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/56267. Accessed November 16, 2024.
Ismail, Jana, Wassim N. Shebaby, Joey Daher, Joelle C. Boulos, Robin Taleb, Costantine F. Daher, Mohamad Mroueh. "Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Wild Carrot (Daucus carota)" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/56267 (accessed November 16, 2024).
Ismail, J., Shebaby, W.N., Daher, J., Boulos, J.C., Taleb, R., Daher, C.F., & Mroueh, M. (2024, March 14). Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Wild Carrot (Daucus carota). In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/56267
Ismail, Jana, et al. "Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Wild Carrot (Daucus carota)." Encyclopedia. Web. 14 March, 2024.
Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Wild Carrot (Daucus carota)
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/plants13010093

Daucus carota L., a member of the Apiaceae family, comprises 13 subspecies, with one being cultivated (D. carota L. ssp. sativus (Hoffm.) Arcang.) and the remaining being wild. Traditionally, the wild carrot has been recognized for its antilithic, diuretic, carminative, antiseptic, and anti-inflammatory properties and has been employed in the treatment of urinary calculus, cystitis, gout, prostatitis, and cancer. 

Daucus carota wild carrot terpenes anticancer anti-inflammatory antimicrobial

1. Introduction

Daucus carota belongs to the family Apiaceae or Umbelliferae and is part of the Daucus genus, which is a polymorphic taxon of multiple species and subspecies [1]. This family is characterized by aromatic, flowering, and celery/parsley-like plants that include edible as well as toxic species. Daucus carota L., commonly known as carrot, is classified into twelve subspecies; D. carota ssp. sativus (Hoffm.) Arcang. (the most well-known variety) and D. carota ssp. boissieri (Schweinf.) H. A. Hosni (red carrot) are the cultivated and edible varieties [2]. The wild subtypes of the carrot include the subspecies carota, maritimus, major, maximus, gummiferi, hispanicus, commutatus, fontanesii, and bocconei [3]. Selective breeding of an ancestral wild form of carrots, D. carota ssp. carota, over the centuries led to the origination of a cultivated form of D. carota, later made to be known as D. carota ssp. sativus [4]. Most of the available literature focuses on this specific subspecies, and it has been a topic of interest for researchers since the day of its cultivation. Differentiation among D. carota L. subspecies is difficult as the carrot is an outcrossing species, and both cultivated and wild carrot samples coexist, thus presenting the possibility of hybrids’ formation. Nonetheless, Thellung classifies the subspecies into two groups, eucarota and gummiferi, each classified into five more subspecies. The eucarota group includes the subspecies sativus, carota, maritimus, major, and maximus; these plants are mostly annual or biennial. Plants of the gummiferi group, on the other hand, are perennials and include the subspecies commutatus, hispanicus, fontanesii, bocconei, and gummifer [3], among others.
The wild carrot, commonly known as Bird’s Nest, Bishop’s Lace, and Queen Anne’s lace [5], is generally a biennial plant (around 1 m height) with distinctive clusters of tiny white flowers that bloom during warm seasons. Unlike the cultivated carrot, the wild carrot has a thin tap root, hairy stems, two- to three-pinnate leaves, pinnate bracts below a concave umbel, when fruiting, and spiny fruits [1]. Its flowering period spans from May to September [6].
It is important to mention that due to the similarities in their appearances, incidences of confusion have been observed between D. carota and poison Hemlock (Conium maculatum), which is infamously linked to the death of the Greek philosopher Socrates [7][8]. Thus, providers and consumers should be able to identify and distinguish between the two plants. For example, D. carota stems and leaves are hairy, whereas Conium maculatum stems are smooth and display purple blotching. Regarding the aerial parts, D. carota has a purple/red flower at the center of the umbel, absent in Conium maculatum, and the umbels in D. carota appear flatter, resembling an umbrella in Conium maculatum. Finally, only D. carota demonstrates three-pronged bracts at the base of the flower/umbel. Despite their similar fern-like leaves, extreme caution should be exercised when identifying them [9].

2. Ethnopharmacological Use of Daucus carota

About 300,000 species of higher plants have been identified worldwide, of which 17,810 species have been documented by The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, as medicinal plants (State of the World’s Plants, 2016). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), eighty percent of Africans utilize different forms of herbal medicine [10][11]. The global annual market of these herbal products is estimated at USD 60 billion (WHO, 2002). In China, herbal medicine played a significant role in containing and treating the 2004 severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic [12].
The lesser-known subspecies, wild carrots, are no less important subtypes and have been utilized for various indications. It was first described in the third century BCE by the ancient Roman Diphilus of Siphnos to possess diuretic properties and by Pliny the Elder for its aphrodisiac effects [13]. According to “The Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants”, the wild carrot is a very beneficial plant that possesses hepatoprotective, diuretic, and detoxifying properties [14]. An infusion of its leaves prevents kidney-stone formation, treats existing stones, combats cystitis, promotes the pituitary gland release of gonadotrophins, and treats parasitic infections [14][15]. It presents itself as an effective remedy for numerous digestive, kidney, bladder, and menstrual ailments, as well as dropsy, flatulence, and edema [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]. The Romans were known to use the wild carrot as a component for contraception, a potent emmenagogue and an inhibitor of implantation [23]. Additionally, the plant was known as the traditional “morning after” contraception through the stimulation of the uterus [15][23][24]. Moreover, Duke et al. reported that the wild carrot exhibits carminative, diuretic, emmenagogue, and anthelmintic properties [25]. The seed oil has also been used in anti-wrinkle creams [26]. In European and Middle Eastern folk medicine, wild carrot oil is used as an antiseptic and anti-inflammatory therapy for prostatitis and cystitis [15][16][17][18], diabetes mellitus, and gastric ulcers, as well as for myorelaxation [27].
Wild carrot is consumed in salads as part of the Mediterranean diet and is used as a food additive in some recipes [28]. People eat its young taproot cooked, consume its flower umbels after French frying, and use its seed oil as a flavoring agent in beverages and food products [29]. In Lebanese folk medicine, the plant is used for protection against hepatic diseases and the treatment of diabetes, gastric ulcers, muscle pain, and cancer. Professor Nehme, in his book the ‘Wild Flowers of Lebanon’, mentioned that the aromatic seeds of the wild carrot were used as a vermifuge, a diuretic, an antidote for snake bites, and for sterility [30]. Traditional medicine presents D. carota, whether cultivated or wild, as a highly beneficial plant with promising potential for treating various ailments.

3. Phytochemistry and Bioactive Compounds/Chemical Composition

To better understand and characterize the medicinal benefits of the wild carrot, a phytochemical investigation is warranted. Numerous scholars have conducted extensive studies on the different D. carota subspecies to identify and characterize their bioactive constituents. As illustrated in Table 1, terpenoids and phenolics emerge as two significant chemical classes identified, with the terpenoids further classified into monoterpenes (e.g., α-pinene and geranyl acetate), sesquiterpenes (e.g., humulene and carotol), diterpenes (e.g., phytol), triterpenes (e.g., squalene), and tetraterpenes (e.g., α-carotene). Phenolics encompass phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, and tannins.
Table 1. Classification of different classes of chemical compounds.
Class Types Examples
Terpenoids Monoterpenes Geraniol, Limonene, α-Pinene, β-Pinene, Sabinene, α-Terpinene, β-Myrcene, Geranyl acetate, Linalool, and α-Thujone
Sesquiterpenes Bergamotene, Humulene, Nerolidol, Selinene, Farnesol, Germacrene, Carotol, Caryophyllene, β-Himachalene, and β-Bisabolene
Diterpenes Phytol, Vitamin A1, and Cembrene
Triterpenes Squaline, Saponins, and Ginsenoide
Tetraterpenes Carotenoids (e.g., α-carotene, β-carotene, lycopene) and Xanthophylls (lutein)
Phenolics Phenylpropanoids Apigenin, Quercetin, Myristicin, and Methylisoeugenol
Flavonoids Luteolin, Apigenin, Quercetin, Myristicin, and Kaempferol
Tannins Gallic acid and Ellagic acid
As is evident in Table 2, D. carota subspecies have proven to be rich in various chemical components, with some being familiar and well-studied while others are new and worth further attention. In particular, the monoterpenes α-pinene, geranyl acetate, and sabinene, along with the sesquiterpene carotol, stand out as the most prominent constituents in different D. carota subspecies, exhibiting variable percentages. These compounds are noteworthy for their diverse pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antifungal activities [31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43]. Although the country of origin and the plant organ differ, most of the components are shared among all subspecies, with some exceptions that are clearly evident.
Table 2. Summary of the main chemical components of different Daucus carota subspecies from different countries of origin (percentages > 3% were reported).
Daucus carota ssp. Plant Organ Country Main Components References
carota Umbels Lebanon β-2-himachalen-6-ol (33%), α-longipinene (3.22–15.87%), methyl linoleate (8.26%), (E)-methylisoeugenol (2.21–7.92%), 2-butanone (5.95%), α-Selinene (4.53–5.69%), Elemicin (4.03–4.93%), β-Asarone (4.07%), β Himachalene (2.24–4.63%), n-hexadecanoic acid (3.72%), humulene
(3.27%), himachala-1,4-diene (3.09%), β-Bisabolene (1.76–3.78%)		 [27][44][45]
Flowering umbels Portugal α-Pinene (37.9%), geranyl acetate (15%), (E)-caryophyllene (4.9%), β-Pinene (3.5%), [46]
Umbels with ripe seeds Geranyl acetate (65%), α-Pinene (13%)
Flowering umbels Italy Carotol (25.1%), 11αH-himachal-4-en-1-β-ol (21.6%), β-bisabolene (17.6%), elemicin (6.4%)
Umbels with ripe seeds β-bisabolene (51%), (E)-methyl isoeugenol (10%), 11αH-himachal-4-en-1-β-ol (9%), elemicin (5.2%), α-longipinene (3.1%)
Ripe umbels Portugal Geranyl acetate (29%), α-Pinene (27.2%), Limonene (9%), 11αH-Himachal-4-en-1-β-ol (9.2%), Carotol (6.2%), β-Pinene (4.5%) [47]
Ripe umbels with mature seeds Tunisia Carotol (3.5–55.7%), Elemecin (1.4–35.3%), 11αH-Himachal-4-en-1-β-ol (12.7–17.4%), Sabinene (12–14.5%), α-Selinene (7.4–8.6%), Eudesm-7(11)-en-4-ol (8.2–8.5%), β-Bisabolene (5.5–7.6%), (Z)-β-Farnesene (1.6–5%), (E)-α-Bergamotene (0.2–3.8%) [48]
Herbs Poland Sabinene (30.1%), α-Pinene (30%), Terpinen-4-ol (6.1%), limonene (5.3%), myrcene (5.2%) [49]
Flowering Umbels α-Pinene (42%), Sabinene (19.5%), limonene (3.7%), myrcene (3.1%)
Mature Umbels Sabinene (40.5%), α-Pinene (17.2%), geranyl acetate (16.5%), Terpinen-4-ol (4.9%),
Aerial parts France (E)-methylisoeugenol (21.8–33%), β-Bisabolene (4.4–21.3%), Elemicin (11.4–16.3%), α-Pinene (15.9–24.9%), Sabinene (2.7–3.7%), Myrcene (2–3.5%), α-Terpinen-4-ol (0.5–3.5%) [16][50]
Flowers Algeria α-Pinene (10.9%), α-Asarone (9.8%), β-Bisabolene (7.6%), β-Caryophyllene (7.1%), Sabinene (7%), Daucol (3.2%), Limonene (3%) [51]
Leaves + Stems α-Pinene (10.6%), α-Asarone (9.4%), β-Bisabolene (9.3%), Sabinene (7.2%), Carotol (6.8%), E-α-Bisabolene (6.3%), Daucol (5.3%), β-Caryophyllene (4.3%), Limonene (4%)
Aerial parts α-Pinene (21.3%), α-Asarone (18.4%), β-Bisabolene (7.3%), Sabinene (6.5%), Limonene (6.4%), Carotol (3.5%), Terpinen-4-ol (3.5%), β-Caryophyllene (3.3%), E-α-Bisabolene (3.2%)
Leaves α-Pinene (27.44%), sabinene (25.34%),
Germacrene D (16.33%)		 [52]
Seeds Geranyl acetate (52.45%), Cedrone S (14.04%), Asarone (11.39%), β-bisobolene (4.83%), Ar-himachalene (3.54%)
Ripe fruits Serbia Sabinene (27.16%), α-pinene (21.3%), α-muurolene (8.23%), β-caryophyllene (6.82%), α-ylangene (5.21%), β-Pinene (3.9%) [53]
Unripe fruits α-muurolene (10.97%), sabinene (10.67%), caryophyllene oxide (7.7%), α-amorphene (7.57%), α-pinene (7.05%), carotol (6.15%), dimenone (5.28%), α-ylangene (4.88%),
Flowers α-Pinene (51.23%), Limonene (9.59%), Sabinene (8.62%), β-Myrcene (7.18%), Terpinen-4-ol (3.48%), β-Pinene (3.35%)
Roots Sabinene (36.39%), α-Pinene (24.56%), Limonene (6.53%), β-Pinene (5.39%)
Leaves α-Pinene (30.83%), Limonene (8.6%), β-Myrcene (5.6%), Germacrene D (4.56%)
Stems α-Pinene (18.53%), α-Bisabolol (6.02%), Limonene (5.74%), β-Myrcene (3.4%), Sabinene (3.23%)
Fruits Portugal Geranyl acetate (28.7–65%), α-Pinene (13–27.1%), 11αH-Himachal-4-en-1-β-ol (0.5–9.4%), Limonene (1.2–9%), β-Pinene (2.3–4.5%) [54]
Roots Vienna α-Terpinolene (26.2–56.3%), β-Pinene (4.1–8.2%), p-Cymene (2.7–7.4%), Sabinene (5.6–5.9%), γ-terpinene (0.9–5.6%), Limonene (5.5%), Myristicin (4.9–5.1%) [1]
Leaves α-Pinene (20.9–44.8%), Sabinene (11.3–19.5%), Germacrene D (4.9–14%), Limonene (3.9–12.7%), Myrcene (4–11.2%), β-Pinene (1.3–5.9%), Caryophyllene (1.2–3.7%)
Fruits Sabinene (21.5–46.6%), α-Pinene (23.5–30.4%), Geranyl acetate (3.9–28.1%), β-Pinene (3–13.1%), α-Thujene (1–8.8%), γ-terpinene (0.3–4.1%), Myrcene (3.4–3.9%)
Seeds Lithuania Sabinene (28.2–37.5%), α-Pinene (16–24.5%), Terpinen-4-ol (5–6%), γ-terpinene (2.9–6%), Limonene (3–4.2%) [41]
Leaves Uzbekistan Carotol (68.3%), Daucene (5%), trans-β-Farnesene (3.7%), β-Bisabolene (3.3%), α-Pinene (3.1%) [55]
Flowers Carotol (68.8%), Daucene (4.7%), Daucol (3.4%), trans-β-Farnesene (3.3%)
Petals Carotol (78.3%)
Fruits Carotol (69.8%), Daucene (9%), trans-α-Bergamotene (4.7%), trans-β-Farnesene (3.7%)
Umbels United States α-Pinene (33.02%), β-Pinene (25.77%), Borneol (10.4%), Myrcene (6.41%), Limonene (5.34%), γ-terpinene (4.97%) [56]
maximus Ripe and mature fruits Egypt (E)-methylisoeugenol (37.22%), β-bisabolene (34.7%), β-Asarone (17.65%) [2]
Leaf Preisocalamendiol (17.95%), Shyobunone (16.84%), β-Cubebene (12.72%), Tridecane (3.411%), Linalool (3.34%), (E)-2-Nonenal (3.22%)
Stem Preisocalamendiol (32.69%), Shyobunone (24.33%), α-Pinene (4.37%), β-Cubebene (3.55%)
Fruits Portugal α-Pinene (10–25.9%), α-Asarone (5.8–25.8%), Geranyl acetate (3.4–16%), β-bisabolene (8.3–15.1%), (E)-methylisoeugenol (8.2–15.7%), Elemicin (4.9–13.6%), β-Pinene (4–6.8%), Limonene (1.8–3.3%) [57] [54]
Ripe umbels Portugal α-Pinene (22.2%), Geranyl acetate (16%), β-bisabolene (11.5%), α-asarone (9.8%), (E)-methylisoeugenol (8%), Elemicin (6%), β-Pinene (5.8%) [58]
Green seeds Italy Carotol (44.68%), β-bisabolene (12.72%), Isoelemicin (11.51%), Geranyl acetate (4.36%) [59]
maritimus Flowers Tunisia Sabinene (51.6%), Terpinen-4-ol (11%), p-Cymene (4.2%), Eudesm-6-en-4α-ol (3.6%) [60]
Roots Dillapiole (46.6%), Myristicin (29.7%), Limonene (3.6%)
major Flowers Italy α-Pinene (24.4%), Sabinene (13.3%), Geranyl acetate (13%), epi-α-Cadinol (8.5%), Myrcene (4.8%), β-Oplopenone (4.3%) [42]
Fruits Geranyl acetate (34.2%), α-Pinene (12.9%), Geraniol (6.9%), Myrcene (4.7%), epi-α-Bisabolol (4.5%), Sabinene (3.3%)
halophilus Flowering Umbels Portugal Sabinene (28.3–33.8%), α-Pinene (12.6–16%), Limonene (11–11.8%), (E)-methylisoeugenol (0.7–7.4%), Elemicin (5.9–6.2%), β-Bisabolene (0.4–5.3%), Terpinene-4-ol (4.1–4.8%), Myrcene (3.2–4.7%), β-Pinene (2.3–5.1%) [57]
Ripe Umbels Elemicin (26–31%), Sabinene (27.6–29%), α-Pinene (10.1–12.2%), Limonene (5.5–6.5%), (E)-methylisoeugenol (0.5–6.9%)
Fruits Elemicin (15–31%), Sabinene (9–29%), α-Pinene (12.2–23%), Limonene (5.5–12%), (E)-methylisoeugenol (0.5–7.4%), Terpinen-4-ol (2–4.7%) [54]
hispanicus Roots Algeria Apiole (80.3%), Myristicin (16.6%) [61]
Aerial parts Myristicin (73.2%), Epiglobulol (5.1%), Germacrene D (3.1%)
Stems Myristicin (66.9%), α-Thujene (4.3%)
Leaves Myristicin (80.2%), Epiglobulol (3.1%)
Flowers Myristicin (83.8%), Germacrene D (6.4%)
gummifer Fruits Spain Geranyl acetate (51.74–76.95%), Sabinene (4.42–11.13%), Terpinen-4-ol (0.93–8.17%), Linalool (3.97–5.18%) [62] [62]
Portugal Geranyl acetate (18–55%), α-Pinene (11–31%), Carotol (5–15%), Sabinene (2.1–10%), Limonene (5.8–9%), Germacrene D (2–5.5%), β-Pinene (3.8–5.2%), Myrcene (2.1–3.7%) [57]
Ripe umbels Portugal Geranyl acetate (37%), Limonene (5.8%), α-Pinene (30.9%), β-Pinene (3.8%) [63]
hispidus Aerial parts Tunisia (4R)-1-p-menthen-6,8-diol, 1-p-menthen-4,7-diol, (1R,2R,4R)-p-menthane-1,2,4-triol, β-sitosterol 3-O-glucoside (abundance not specified) [64] [64]

4. Pharmacological Activities

4.1. Anticancer Activity

With the increasing need for optimizing cancer therapy, extensive studies were conducted to assess the potential benefit of herbal options in oncology. Regarding the anticancer potential of wild D. carota, only D. carota ssp. carota was studied and demonstrated to possess these properties.
Moreover, recent findings revealed that D. carota oil extract (DCOE) demonstrated substantial preventive and therapeutic effects against DMBA-induced breast cancer in rats. Animals pre-treated with DCOE exhibited prolonged survival and reduced tumor incidence. Also, DCOE treatment post-tumor induction resulted in a significant inhibition of tumor volume [65].
Furthermore, in 2015, Tawil et al. [66] reported that DCOE induced caspase-dependent apoptotic cell death in human Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML) cells, partially through the Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK)-dependent mechanism. These kinases regulate important cellular mechanisms such as proliferation, stress responses, immune defense, and apoptosis [67]. DCOE was eluted into four fractions (pentane:diethyl ether, 50:50 (F2), diethyl ether, 100%) and F4 (chloroform:methanol, 93:7) and tested against various human cell lines [68]. The pentane (100%) and pentane/diethyl ether (50:50) fractions displayed the highest anticancer activity against MDA-MB-231, MCF-7, HT-29, and Caco-2 cells. Inhibition of cell proliferation in MDA-MB-231 and HT-29 cells was attributed to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. The latter was mediated via the suppression of the MAPK/Erk pathway in MDA-MB-231 cells and the PI3K/Akt and MAPK/Erk pathways in HT-29 cells [68][69].

4.2. Antibacterial Activity

With the increasing resistance to antibacterial agents and the need for alternatives to the current options, few studies have assessed the role of D. carota in eradicating bacterial infections. Only D. carota ssp. carota, hispanicus, maritimus, and maximus have been investigated and have been shown to possess antibacterial properties against various bacterial species. In 2005, Staniszewska et al. [49] tested the essential oil of D. carota ssp. carota umbels from Poland against four different species of bacteria, revealing a greater efficacy against Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis) than Gram-negative bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli). Moreover, C. jejuni (reference strain and clinical isolates F38O11, LV7, and LV9) as well as other bacterial strains of the Campylobacter genus (C. coli and C. lari) were found to be equally susceptible to the antibacterial effect of the aerial parts of D. carota ssp. carota harvested in France [16].
Asilbekova et al. [55] reported that essential oils of different parts (leaves, flowers, petals, fruits) of Daucus carota ssp. carota from Uzbekistan demonstrated modest activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis. Furthermore, in 2009, Wehbe et al. [70] showed that the aqueous and methanolic extracts of Lebanese D. carota ssp. carota umbels exhibited a minimal inhibition of Staphylococcus aureus meti S and meti R (MIC20 and 10 mg/mL, respectively), while no effect was observed against Gram-negative bacteria. Essential oils extracted from flowers and roots of Tunisian D. carota ssp. maritimus were also tested, showing broad-spectrum antibacterial activity against P. aeruginosa, E. coli, E. faecalis, K. pneumoniae, and S. typhimurium [60]. The flower-derived oil was more effective against E. coli (ESLβ), while the root-derived oil demonstrated greater efficacy against S. aureus, S. pneumonia, Shigella spp., and E. faecalis. The authors attributed these pharmacological activities to the significant presence of sabinene and terpinen-4-ol, as well as phenolic compounds like dillapiole and myristicin.
Sabinene has been reported to possess antibacterial activities against several Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The sabinene-type of the essential oil obtained from berries and leaves of Juniperus excelsa from Macedonia exhibited moderate activity against Streptococcus pyogenes, Haemopilus influenzae, Campylobacter jejuni, and Escherichia coli [71].
Algerian D. carota ssp. hispanicus roots’ and aerial parts’ essential oils were shown to exhibit varied growth-inhibitory effects against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The authors suggest that the antibacterial activity could be attributed to phenolic compounds such as myristicin and apiole [61]. 

4.3. Antifungal Activity

The antifungal properties of D. carota subspecies were studied against different fungal strains. D. carota ssp. carota, gummifer, halophilus, hispanicus, and maximus were found to exhibit significant antifungal activities. Oil extract derived from different plant organs of D. carota ssp. carota demonstrated both fungistatic and fungicidal activities, with Fulvia fulvum being the most susceptible and Trichoderma viride and Aspergillus ochraceus being the most resistant. Among the plant organs, the oil from unripe fruits exhibited the strongest antifungal activity, followed by ripe fruit oil, root oil, stem oil, leaf oil, and flower oil [53]. In 2017, Asilbekova et al. [55] showed that fruit essential oil of D. carota ssp. carota from Uzbekistan showed antifungal activity against C. albicans. However, the essential oils of D. carota ssp. carota umbels from Poland displayed weak inhibitory activity against Candida albicans and Penicillium expansum [49].
The antifungal properties of other D. carota subspecies were also investigated. In 2015, Valente et al. [63] revealed that an essential oil from aerial parts of D. carota ssp. gummifer was found to be more active against C. guillermondii, dermatophyte strains, and C. neoformans compared to other Candida strains. The authors attributed the antifungal properties to the high contents of geranyl acetate and α-pinene. The essential oil from aerial parts of Portuguese D. carota ssp. maximus, also tested for antifungal activity, demonstrated a broad antifungal spectrum against many fungal strains, especially Aspergillus, Candida, dermatophytes and Cryptococus neoformans [58]. The oil also exhibited a higher antifungal activity against Aspergillus and Candida strains compared to other Portuguese subspecies and various D. carota ssp. taxa from different countries [49][53].

4.4. Antioxidant Activity

Free radicals are known to contribute to several ailments, including cardiovascular, cancer, and degenerative diseases. Numerous antioxidant studies have been conducted on D. carota ssp. carota, with only one study on D. carota ssp. gummifer. Akgul et al. [72] reported that oil extracted from D. carota L. ssp. carota flowers from Turkey possesses significant DPPH radical scavenging properties, and this effect was stronger than that of individual compounds extracted from the oil. Similarly, Shebaby et al. [27] indicated antioxidant properties for the Lebanese D. carota ssp. carota umbel oil extract (DCOE) using the FRAP and DPPH assays. The results exhibited significant radical scavenging activity of DCOE in comparison to Trolox. The authors attributed the scavenging role of DCOE to the high levels of terpenes, phenols, and polyphenolic compounds.
The antioxidant properties of different fractions of DCOE were examined both in vitro and in living organisms in vivo [73]. The fractions made using diethyl ether and chloroform/methanol were found to have the strongest antioxidant activity when tested using the DPPH and FRAP assays. This activity is likely due to the presence of various phenolic compounds, including luteolin, kaempferol, apigenin, caffeic acid, and quercetin, which are known to have antioxidant properties [74][75][76][77][78]. On the other hand, the pentane fraction that is abundant in sesquiterpenes displayed moderate antioxidant activity when evaluated by DPPH assay. This can be linked to the presence of α-humelene and β-caryophyllene, which are known to have significant antioxidant effects [79][80][81][82]. 

4.5. Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Wild carrot has traditionally been used in folk medicine to treat various inflammatory conditions like cystitis and prostatitis. In light of this, researchers have conducted numerous studies to examine the anti-inflammatory properties of various D. carota ssp. including spp. carota, gummifer, and maximus. Both the aqueous (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg BW) and methanolic (70, 140, and 280 mg/kg BW) extracts of the Lebanese D. carota ssp. carota umbels displayed a significant reduction in acute and chronic inflammation in rats. The anti-inflammatory effects observed were similar to those of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac and were associated with the presence of terpenes and flavonoids in the plant extracts [70].

4.6. Miscellaneous

In a study by Wehbe et al. [70], the researchers examined the ability of aqueous and methanolic extracts of Lebanese D. carota ssp. carota umbels to protect against ethanol-induced gastric damage in rats. Both extracts demonstrated a protective effect, with the methanolic extract showing a higher curative ratio compared to the aqueous extract and the group treated with cimetidine. According to these authors, this gastro-protective effect is likely due to the presence of flavonoids and tannins in the plant. Additionally, the aqueous extract was found to decrease levels of HDL, without having any significant impact on total cholesterol, triglycerides, and LDL concentrations.

5. Safety/Toxicological Evaluation

In addition to the assessment of their efficacy, subspecies carota, gummifer, halophilus, and maximus were evaluated for their safety. The aqueous extract of Lebanese D. carota ssp. carota umbels showed no significant variations in liver enzyme concentrations (SGOT, SGPT, ALP, and LDH) in rats, suggesting that the extract can maintain the structural integrity of the hepatocellular membrane [70]. Tawil et al. [66] revealed an extremely low susceptibility of normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) to DCOE methanol:acetone (1:1) treatment. Additionally, according to Dixon’s up and down model, the LD50 of the major compound β-2-himachalen-6-ol (HC), obtained from Lebanese D. carota ssp. carota umbels, was 1000 folds higher than that of cisplatin, highlighting the low toxicity profile of DCOE in adult Balb/c mice [44]. In another study, chronic treatments with HC displayed mild hepatotoxicity with no adverse effects on the kidneys of the treated mice. The HC-treated groups showed the highest survival rate among all groups [83].
A previous report indicated that an essential oil derived from the aerial parts of D. carota ssp. gummifer does not affect the cell viability of macrophages at concentrations below 1.25 μL/mL [63]. Comparable results were observed for liver cells (hepatocytes) and skin cells (keratinocytes). However, it was somewhat more toxic to microglia cells, leading to decreased cell viability when used at concentrations above 0.64 μL/mL [63].
When testing D. carota ssp. halophilus umbel essential oils at concentrations possessing significant antifungal activity, no cytotoxicity was detected in mouse skin dendritic cells [54]. Lastly, the safety of the essential oil from aerial parts of Portuguese D. carota ssp. maximus was assessed on human keratinocytes and hepatocytes as well as mouse macrophages and microglial cells [58]. The results showed that cell viability at concentrations lower than 1.25 μL/mL was not affected for all cell lines except microglial cells, where cytotoxicity was observed at a concentration as low as 0.64 μL/mL.

6. Conclusions

To better characterize the therapeutic potential of wild D. carota, it is essential to investigate the interplay between its traditional uses and pharmacological activities in relation to its chemical composition. D. carota ssp. carota has a longstanding traditional use in Lebanon to fight oncological ailments, a usage substantiated by numerous studies underscoring its significant anticancer properties, attributed mainly to the presence of the distinctive compound β-2-himachalen-6-ol [27][44][45][66][68][69][83][84][85][86][87][88]. The wild carrot has also been traditionally employed by the Lebanese and Persian communities in the treatment of gastric ulcers [30][89], as supported by a study indicating that both aqueous and methanolic extracts possess protective effects against ethanol-induced gastric damage in rats. The authors attribute this gastro-protective activity to the presence of flavonoids and tannins within the plant [70]. 

Regarding the antimicrobial activities, various subspecies, including carota, hispanicus, maritimus, and maximus, have exhibited mild to moderate antibacterial properties against various bacterial species, aligning with their historical use in folk medicine as antiseptics for treating bacterial infections, such as prostatitis and cystitis [15][16][17][18]. Notably, α-pinene and geranyl acetate emerged as key constituents contributing to this antibacterial efficacy, which is in line with other studies that emphasize the antibacterial potential of α-pinene [31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40]. While folk medicine does not explicitly mention the use of the wild carrot for fungal infections, multiple studies underscore its significant antifungal activities against diverse fungal strains, particularly within D. carota ssp. carota, gummifer, halophilus, hispanicus, and maximus [46][47][49][53][54][58][61][63]. The phytochemicals responsible for this antifungal activity, namely, α-pinene, geranyl acetate, and α-limonene, align with findings from related studies [34][90][91][92][93][94][95][96][97]. In addressing inflammatory conditions, D. carota ssp. carota, gummifer and maximus have demonstrated noteworthy anti-inflammatory properties [58][63][70] that were mainly attributed to the presence of α-pinene and geranyl acetate [97][98][99]. This aligns with the historical utilization of wild carrots in folk medicine for the treatment different inflammatory disorders like pain, prostatitis, and cystitis [15][16][17][18]. The observed anti-inflammatory effect of the wild carrot may also be attributed to the existence of antioxidant compounds in the plant extract [27][47][51][63][72][73]. Notably, various terpenes including α-pinene, β-Caryophyllene, β-bisabolene, sabinene, limonene, and α-longipinene along with polyphenols like luteolin, kaempferol, apigenin, caffeic acid, and quercetin are recognized for their radical scavenging activities [74][75][76][77][78][100][101][102]. An elevated production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is linked to oxidative stress and the oxidation of proteins [103]. This, in turn, triggers inflammatory mediators and numerous inflammatory signals in response to protein oxidations [104].

References

  1. Chizzola, R. Composition of the essential oil from Daucus carota ssp. carota growing wild in Vienna. J. Essent. Oil-Bear. Plants 2010, 13, 12–19.
  2. Saad, H.A.; El-Sharkawy, S.; Halim, A. Essential oils of Daucus carota ssp. maximus. Pharm. Acta Helv. 1995, 70, 79–84.
  3. Thellung, M. L’origine de la Carotte et du Radis cultivés. J. Agric. Tradit. Bot. Appl. 1927, 7, 666–671.
  4. Iorizzo, M.; Senalik, D.A.; Ellison, S.L.; Grzebelus, D.; Cavagnaro, P.F.; Allender, C.; Brunet, J.; Spooner, D.M.; Van Deynze, A.; Simon, P.W. Genetic structure and domestication of carrot (Daucus carota subsp. sativus) (Apiaceae). Am. J. Bot. 2013, 100, 930–938.
  5. Mitich, L. Intriguing world of weeds: Wild carrot (Daucus carota L.). Weed Technol. 1996, 10, 455–457.
  6. McGuffin, M.; Hobbs, C.; Upton, R.; Goldberg, A. Botanical Safety Handbook; American Herbal Products Association: Silver Spring, MD, USA; CRC Press LLC: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 1997.
  7. Duke, J. Handbook of Edible Weeds; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 1992; 246p.
  8. Hotti, H.; Rischer, H. The killer of Socrates: Coniine and related alkaloids in the plant kingdom. Molecules 2017, 22, 1962.
  9. Anderson, E.; Brasntrom, I.; Hill, E. Poison Hemlock Identification and Control. Available online: https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/poison-hemlock-identification-and-control (accessed on 10 March 2022).
  10. Willcox, M.L.; Bodeker, G. Traditional herbal medicines for malaria. Br. Med. J. 2004, 329, 1156–1159.
  11. World Health Organization. Programme on Traditional, M. WHO Traditional Medicine Strategy 2002–2005; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2002.
  12. International Expert Meeting on the Treatment of SbTCM, the Integration of Traditional Chinese Medicine with Western M. In SARS: Clinical Trials on Treatment Using a Combination of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Western Medicine: Report of the WHO International Expert Meeting to Review and Analyse Clinical Reports on Combination Treatment for SARS, Beijing, China, 8–10 October 2003; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2004.
  13. Tobyn, G.; Denham, A.; Whitelegg, M. Daucus Carota, Wild Carrot. In Medical Herbs; Churchill Livingstone: London, UK, 2011; pp. 145–154.
  14. Chevallier, A. The Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants; DK Adult: New York, NY, USA, 1996.
  15. Hoffman, D. The New Holistic Herbal, 3rd ed.; Element Shaftesbury Dorset: Shaftesbury, UK, 1990.
  16. Rossi, P.-G.; Bao, L.; Luciani, A.; Panighi, J.; Desjobert, J.-M.; Costa, J.; Casanova, J.; Bolla, J.-M.; Berti, L. (E)-Methylisoeugenol and elemicin: Antibacterial components of Daucus carota L. essential oil against Campylobacter jejuni. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2007, 55, 7332–7336.
  17. Barnes, J. Herbal medicine. Pharm. J. 1998, 260, 344–348.
  18. Thomas, K.J.; Nicholl, J.P.; Coleman, P. Use and expenditure on complementary medicine in England: A population based survey. Complement. Ther. Med. 2001, 9, 2–11.
  19. Launert, E. Edible and Medicinal Plants. In Covera Plants in Europe a Drawing of Each Plant, Quite a Bit of Interesting Information; Hamlyn: London, UK, 1981.
  20. Triska, D. Hamlyn Encyclopaedia of Plants; Hamlyn: London, UK, 1975; ISBN 0-600-33545-3.
  21. Lust, J. The Herb Book: The Most Complete Catalog of Herbs Ever Published; Courier Corporation: Chelmsford, MA, USA, 2014.
  22. Mills, S. The Dictionary of Modern Herbalism: A Comprehensive Guide to Practical Herbal Therapy; Inner Traditions/Bear & Co: Rochester, VT, USA, 1988.
  23. Jansen, G.C.; Wohlmuth, H. Carrot seed for contraception: A review. Aust. J. Herb. Med. 2014, 26, 10–17.
  24. Riddle, J.M. Oral contraceptives and early-term abortifacients during classical antiquity and the Middle Ages. Past Present 1991, 132, 3–32.
  25. Duke, J.A.; Ayensu, E.S. Medicinal Plants of China; Reference Publications: Algonac, MI, USA, 1985.
  26. Bown, D. The Royal Horticultural Society Encyclopedia of Herbs & Their Uses; Dorling Kindersley Limited: London, UK, 1995.
  27. Shebaby, W.N.; El-Sibai, M.; Smith, K.B.; Karam, M.C.; Mroueh, M.; Daher, C.F. The antioxidant and anticancer effects of wild carrot oil extract. Phytother. Res. 2013, 27, 737–744.
  28. Nehir El, S.; Karakaya, S. Radical scavenging and iron-chelating activities of some greens used as traditional dishes in Mediterranean diet. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 2004, 55, 67–74.
  29. Leung, A.Y. Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients Used in Food, Drugs, and Cosmetics; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 1980.
  30. Nehmeh, M. Wild Flowers of Lebanon; National Council for Scientific Research: Beirut, Lebanon, 1978.
  31. Kovač, J.; Šimunović, K.; Wu, Z.; Klančnik, A.; Bucar, F.; Zhang, Q.; Možina, S.S. Antibiotic resistance modulation and modes of action of (-)-α-pinene in Campylobacter jejuni. PLoS ONE 2015, 10, e0122871.
  32. Griffiths, E.; Bociek, S.; Harries, P.; Jeffcoat, R.; Sissons, D.; Trudgill, P. Bacterial metabolism of alpha-pinene: Pathway from alpha-pinene oxide to acyclic metabolites in Nocardia sp. strain P18. 3. J. Bacteriol. 1987, 169, 4972–4979.
  33. Baik, J.-S.; Kim, S.-S.; Lee, J.-A.; Oh, T.-H.; Kim, J.-Y.; Lee, N.-H.; Hyun, C.-G. Chemical composition and biological activities of essential oils extracted from Korean endemic citrus species. J. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2008, 18, 74–79.
  34. Dhar, P.; Chan, P.; Cohen, D.T.; Khawam, F.; Gibbons, S.; Snyder-Leiby, T.; Dickstein, E.; Rai, P.K.; Watal, G. Synthesis, antimicrobial evaluation, and structure–activity relationship of α-pinene derivatives. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2014, 62, 3548–3552.
  35. de Sousa Eduardo, L.; Farias, T.C.; Ferreira, S.B.; Ferreira, P.B.; Lima, Z.N.; Ferreira, S.B. Antibacterial activity and time-kill kinetics of positive enantiomer of α-pinene against strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 2018, 18, 917–924.
  36. da Franca Rodrigues, K.A.; Amorim, L.V.; Dias, C.N.; Moraes, D.F.C.; Carneiro, S.M.P.; de Amorim Carvalho, F.A. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels essential oil and its major constituent α-pinene exhibit anti-Leishmania activity through immunomodulation in vitro. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2015, 160, 32–40.
  37. de Eduardo, L.; Farias, T.; Silva, G.; da Lopes, F.P.; Ferreira, S. Antibacterial Potential of the Alpha-pinene Positive Enantiomer against the Strain Proteus mirabilis. In Proceedings of the MOL2NET’17, Conference on Molecular, Biomed., Comput. & Network Science and Engineering, 3rd ed., Bilbao, Germany, 15 January–15 December 2017; MDPI: Basel, Switzerland.
  38. Chalchat, J.; Chiron, F.; Garry, R.P.; Lacoste, J.; Sautou, V. Photochemical hydroperoxidation of terpenes. Antimicrobial activity of α-pinene, β-pinene and limonene hydroperoxides. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2000, 12, 125–134.
  39. Silva, A.C.R.d.; Lopes, P.M.; Azevedo, M.M.B.d.; Costa, D.C.M.; Alviano, C.S.; Alviano, D.S. Biological activities of a-pinene and β-pinene enantiomers. Molecules 2012, 17, 6305–6316.
  40. Leite, A.M.; Lima, E.D.O.; Souza, E.L.D.; Diniz, M.D.F.F.M.; Trajano, V.N.; Medeiros, I.A.D. Inhibitory effect of beta-pinene, alpha-pinene and eugenol on the growth of potential infectious endocarditis causing Gram-positive bacteria. Rev. Bras. Cienc. Farm. 2007, 43, 121–126.
  41. Mockute, D.; Nivinskiene, O. The Sabinene Chemotype of Essential Oil of Seeds of Daucus carota L. ssp. carota Growing Wild in Lithuania. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2004, 16, 277–281.
  42. Flamini, G.; Cosimi, E.; Cioni, P.L.; Molfetta, I.; Braca, A. Essential-oil composition of Daucus carota ssp. major (Pastinocello Carrot) and nine different commercial varieties of Daucus carota ssp. sativus fruits. Chem. Biodivers. 2014, 11, 1022–1033.
  43. Elias, A.; Shebaby, W.N.; Nehme, B.; Faour, W.; Bassil, B.S.; El Hakim, J.; Iskandar, R.; Dib-Jalbout, N.; Mroueh, M.; Daher, C. In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of the Anticancer and Anti-inflammatory Activities of 2-Himachelen-7-ol isolated from Cedrus Libani. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 12855.
  44. Taleb, R.I.; Najm, P.; Shebaby, W.; Boulos, J.C.; Demirdjian, S.; Hariri, E.; El-Sibai, M.; Daher, C.; Mroueh, M. β-2-himachalen-6-ol: A novel anticancer sesquiterpene unique to the Lebanese wild carrot. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2016, 190, 59–67.
  45. Zeinab, R.A.; Mroueh, M.; Diab-Assaf, M.; Jurjus, A.; Wex, B.; Sakr, A.; Daher, C.F. Chemopreventive effects of wild carrot oil against 7, 12-dimethyl benz (a) anthracene-induced squamous cell carcinoma in mice. Pharm. Biol. 2011, 49, 955–961.
  46. Maxia, A.; Marongiu, B.; Piras, A.; Porcedda, S.; Tuveri, E.; Goncalves, M.J.; Cavaleiro, C.; Salgueiro, L. Chemical characterization and biological activity of essential oils from Daucus carota L. subsp. carota growing wild on the Mediterranean coast and on the Atlantic coast. Fitoterapia 2009, 80, 57–61.
  47. Alves-Silva, J.M.; Zuzarte, M.; Gonçalves, M.J.; Cavaleiro, C.; Cruz, M.T.; Cardoso, S.M.; Salgueiro, L. New claims for wild carrot (Daucus carota subsp. carota) essential oil. Evid. Based Complement. Alternat Med. 2016, 2016, 9045196.
  48. Marzouki, H.; Khaldi, A.; Falconieri, D.; Piras, A.; Marongiu, B.; Molicotti, P.; Zanetti, S. Essential oils of Daucus carota subsp. carota of Tunisia obtained by supercritical carbon dioxide extraction. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2010, 5, 1955–1958.
  49. Staniszewska, M.; Kula, J.; Wieczorkiewicz, M.; Kusewicz, D. Essential oils of wild and cultivated carrots—The chemical composition and antimicrobial activity. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2005, 17, 579–583.
  50. Gonny, M.; Bradesi, P.; Casanova, J. Identification of the components of the essential oil from wild Corsican Daucus carota L. using 13C-NMR spectroscopy. Flavour. Fragr. J. 2004, 19, 424–433.
  51. Mohammedi, H.; Mecherara-Idjeri, S.; Foudil-Cherif, Y.; Hassani, A. Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of essential oils from Algerian Daucus carota L. subsp. Carota aerial parts. J. Essent. Oil-Bear. Plants 2015, 18, 873–883.
  52. Ksouri, A.; Dob, T.; Belkebir, A.; Krimat, S.; Chelghoum, C. Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of the essential oil and the methanol extract of Algerian wild carrot Daucus carota L. ssp. carota. (L.) Thell. J. Mater. Environ. Sci. 2015, 6, 784–791.
  53. Soković, M.; Stojković, D.; Glamočlija, J.; Ćirić, A.; Ristić, M.; Grubišić, D. Susceptibility of pathogenic bacteria and fungi to essential oils of wild Daucus carota. Pharm. Biol. 2009, 47, 38–43.
  54. Tavares, A.C.; Gonçalves, M.J.; Cavaleiro, C.; Cruz, M.T.; Lopes, M.C.; Canhoto, J.; Salgueiro, L.R. Essential oil of Daucus carota subsp. halophilus: Composition, antifungal activity and cytotoxicity. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2008, 119, 129–134.
  55. Asilbekova, D.T.; Bobakulov, K.M.; Sasmakov, S.A.; Abdurakhmanov, J.M.; Azimova, S.S.; Abdullaev, N.D.; Sagdullaev, S. Composition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils from Daucus carota L. subsp. carota, growing in Uzbekistan. Am. J. Essent. Oils Nat. Prod. 2017, 5, 9–13.
  56. Muturi, E.J.; Doll, K.; Ramirez, J.L.; Rooney, A.P. Bioactivity of wild carrot (Daucus carota, Apiaceae) essential oil against mosquito larvae. J. Med. Entomol. 2019, 56, 784–789.
  57. Tavares, A.C.; Loureiro, J.; Castro, S.; Coutinho, A.P.; Paiva, J.; Cavaleiro, C.; Salgueiro, L.; Canhoto, J.M. Assessment of Daucus carota L. (Apiaceae) subspecies by chemotaxonomic and DNA content analyses. Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 2014, 55, 222–230.
  58. Valente, J.; Resende, R.; Zuzarte, M.; Gonçalves, M.; Lopes, M.; Cavaleiro, C.; Pereira, C.; Salgueiro, L.; Cruz, M. Bioactivity and safety profile of Daucus carota subsp. maximus essential oil. Ind. Crops Prod. 2015, 77, 218–224.
  59. Gaglio, R.; Barbera, M.; Aleo, A.; Lommatzsch, I.; La Mantia, T.; Settanni, L. Inhibitory activity and chemical characterization of Daucus carota subsp. maximus essential oils. Chem. Biodivers. 2017, 14, e1600477.
  60. Jabrane, A.; Jannet, H.B.; Harzallah-Skhiri, F.; Mastouri, M.; Casanova, J.; Mighri, Z. Flower and Root Oils of the Tunisian Daucus carota L. ssp. maritimus (Apiaceae): Integrated Analyses by GC, GC/MS, and 13C-NMR Spectroscopy, and in vitro Antibacterial Activity. Chem. Biodivers. 2009, 6, 881–889.
  61. Bendiabdellah, A.; Dib, M.E.A.; Djabou, N.; Hassani, F.; Paolini, J.; Tabti, B.; Costa, J.; Muselli, A. Daucus carota ssp. hispanicus Gouan. essential oils: Chemical variability and fungitoxic activity. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2014, 26, 427–440.
  62. Pinilla, M.G.; Pérez-Alonso, M.J.; Velasco-Negueruela, A. Volatile Constituents from Fruits of Daucus carota L., subsp. Gummifer Hooker Fil. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1995, 7, 433–435.
  63. Valente, J.; Zuzarte, M.; Resende, R.; Gonçalves, M.; Cavaleiro, C.; Pereira, C.; Cruz, M.; Salgueiro, L. Daucus carota subsp. gummifer essential oil as a natural source of antifungal and anti-inflammatory drugs. Ind. Crops Prod. 2015, 65, 361–366.
  64. Hammami, S.; Elshamy, A.I.; Mokni, R.E.; Snene, A.; Iseki, K.; Dhaouadi, H.; Okamoto, Y.; Suenaga, M.; Noji, M.; Umeyama, A. Chemical constituents of the aerial parts of Daucus carota subsp. hispidus growing in Tunisia. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2019, 14, 1934578X19863512.
  65. Elias, M.G.; Mrad, Y.N.; Nehmeh, B.; Dagher, C.; Mroueh, M.; Taleb, R.I.; Daher, C.F. Wild Daucus Carota Oil Extract: An Innocuous Preventative and Chemotherapeutic Agent Against Chemically Induced Breast Cancer. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2022, 7, 442–455.
  66. Tawil, M.; Bekdash, A.; Mroueh, M.; Daher, C.F.; Abi-Habib, R.J. Wild carrot oil extract is selectively cytotoxic to human acute myeloid leukemia cells. Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. 2015, 16, 761–767.
  67. Dong, C.; Davis, R.J.; Flavell, R.A. MAP kinases in the immune response. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 2002, 20, 55–72.
  68. Shebaby, W.N.; Mroueh, M.; Bodman-Smith, K.; Mansour, A.; Taleb, R.I.; Daher, C.F.; El-Sibai, M. Daucus carota pentane-based fractions arrest the cell cycle and increase apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2014, 14, 387.
  69. Shebaby, W.N.; Bodman-Smith, K.; Mansour, A.; Mroueh, M.; Taleb, R.I.; El-Sibai, M.; Daher, C.F. Daucus carota pentane-based fractions suppress proliferation and induce apoptosis in human colon adenocarcinoma HT-29 cells by inhibiting the MAPK and PI3K pathways. J. Med. Food 2015, 18, 745–752.
  70. Wehbe, K.; Mroueh, M.; Daher, C.F. The potential role of Daucus carota aqueous and methanolic extracts on inflammation and gastric ulcers in rats. J. Complement. Integr. 2009, 6.
  71. Sela, F.; Karapandzova, M.; Stefkov, G.; Cvetkovikj, I.; Kulevanova, S. Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of essential oils of Juniperus excelsa Bieb. (Cupressaceae) grown in R. Macedonia. Pharmacogn. Res. 2015, 7, 74.
  72. Akgul, Y.; Aktas, L.Y.; Anil, H. Compounds from flowers of Daucus carota L. ssp. carota and their antioxidant activity. Chem. Nat. Compd. 2009, 45, 889–892.
  73. Shebaby, W.N.; Daher, C.F.; El-Sibai, M.; Bodman-Smith, K.; Mansour, A.; Karam, M.C.; Mroueh, M. Antioxidant and hepatoprotective activities of the oil fractions from wild carrot (Daucus carota ssp. carota). Pharm. Biol. 2015, 53, 1285–1294.
  74. Boots, A.W.; Haenen, G.R.; Bast, A. Health effects of quercetin: From antioxidant to nutraceutical. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2008, 585, 325–337.
  75. Gülçin, İ. Antioxidant activity of caffeic acid (3, 4-dihydroxycinnamic acid). Toxicology 2006, 217, 213–220.
  76. Park, J.S.; Rho, H.S.; Kim, D.H.; Chang, I.S. Enzymatic preparation of kaempferol from green tea seed and its antioxidant activity. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2006, 54, 2951–2956.
  77. Škerget, M.; Kotnik, P.; Hadolin, M.; Hraš, A.R.; Simonič, M.; Knez, Ž. Phenols, proanthocyanidins, flavones and flavonols in some plant materials and their antioxidant activities. Food Chem. 2005, 89, 191–198.
  78. Yin, J.; Si, C.-L.; Wang, M.-H. Antioxidant activity of flavanoids and their glucosides from Sonchus oleraceus L. J. Appl. Biol. Chem. 2008, 51, 57–60.
  79. Legault, J.; Pichette, A. Potentiating effect of β-caryophyllene on anticancer activity of α-humulene, isocaryophyllene and paclitaxel. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 2007, 59, 1643–1647.
  80. Mayachiew, P.; Devahastin, S. Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of Indian gooseberry and galangal extracts. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 2008, 41, 1153–1159.
  81. Pérez Gutierrez, R.; Hernández Luna, H.; Hernández Garrido, S. Antioxidant activity of Tagetes erecta essential oil. J. Chil. Chem. Soc. 2006, 51, 883–886.
  82. Remya, M.; Vashum, N.; Sivasankar, S. Bioactivity studies on Lantana camara Linn. Int. J. Pharma Bio Sci. 2013, 4, 81–90.
  83. Daaboul, H.E.; Daher, C.F.; Taleb, R.I.; Boulos, J.; Bodman-Smith, K.; Boukamp, P.; Shebaby, W.N.; Dagher, C.; El-Sibai, M.; Mroueh, M.A. β-2-himachalen-6-ol protects against skin cancer development in vitro and in vivo. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 2017, 69, 1552–1564.
  84. Shebaby, W.N.; Mroueh, M.A.; Boukamp, P.; Taleb, R.I.; Bodman-Smith, K.; El-Sibai, M.; Daher, C.F. Wild carrot pentane-based fractions suppress proliferation of human HaCaT keratinocytes and protect against chemically-induced skin cancer. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2017, 17, 36.
  85. Zgheib, P.; Daher, C.F.; Mroueh, M.; Nasrallah, A.; Taleb, R.I.; El-Sibai, M. Daucus carota Pentane/Diethyl Ether Fraction Inhibits Motility and Reduces Invasion of Cancer Cells. Chemotherapy 2014, 60, 302–309.
  86. Daaboul, H.E.; Dagher, C.; Taleb, R.I.; Bodman-Smith, K.; Shebaby, W.N.; El-Sibai, M.; Mroueh, M.A.; Daher, C.F. The chemotherapeutic effect of β-2-himachalen-6-ol in chemically induced skin tumorigenesis. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2018, 103, 443–452.
  87. Daaboul, H.E.; Daher, C.F.; Bodman-Smith, K.; Taleb, R.I.; Shebaby, W.N.; Boulos, J.; Dagher, C.; Mroueh, M.A.; El-Sibai, M. Antitumor activity of β-2-himachalen-6-ol in colon cancer is mediated through its inhibition of the PI3K and MAPK pathways. Chem. Biol. Interact. 2017, 275, 162–170.
  88. Daaboul, H.E.; Dagher, C.; Taleb, R.I.; Bodman-Smith, K.; Shebaby, W.N.; El-Sibai, M.; Mroueh, M.A.; Daher, C.F. β-2-Himachalen-6-ol inhibits 4T1 cells-induced metastatic triple negative breast carcinoma in murine model. Chem. Biol. Interact. 2019, 309, 108703.
  89. Ibn-e-Sina, A. Al-Qanun Fit-Tib ; Alaalami Beirut Lib Press: Beirut, Lebanon, 2005.
  90. Rivera-Yañez, C.R.; Terrazas, L.I.; Jimenez-Estrada, M.; Campos, J.E.; Flores-Ortiz, C.M.; Hernandez, L.B.; Cruz-Sanchez, T.; Garrido-Fariña, G.I.; Rodriguez-Monroy, M.A.; Canales-Martinez, M.M. Anti-Candida activity of Bursera morelensis Ramirez essential oil and two compounds, α-pinene and γ-terpinene—An in vitro study. Molecules 2017, 22, 2095.
  91. Thakre, A.; Zore, G.; Kodgire, S.; Kazi, R.; Mulange, S.; Patil, R.; Shelar, A.; Santhakumari, B.; Kulkarni, M.; Kharat, K. Limonene inhibits Candida albicans growth by inducing apoptosis. Med. Mycol. 2018, 56, 565–578.
  92. Ünal, M.Ü.; Ucan, F.; Şener, A.; Dincer, S. Research on antifungal and inhibitory effects of DL-limonene on some yeasts. Turk. J. Agric. For. 2012, 36, 576–582.
  93. Dias, A.; Sousa, W.; Batista, H.; Alves, C.; Souchie, E.; Silva, F.; Pereira, P.; Sperandio, E.; Cazal, C.; Forim, M. Chemical composition and in vitro inhibitory effects of essential oils from fruit peel of three Citrus species and limonene on mycelial growth of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Braz. J. Biol. 2019, 80, 460–464.
  94. Cai, R.; Hu, M.; Zhang, Y.; Niu, C.; Yue, T.; Yuan, Y.; Wang, Z. Antifungal activity and mechanism of citral, limonene and eugenol against Zygosaccharomyces rouxii. LWT 2019, 106, 50–56.
  95. Singh, P.; Shukla, R.; Prakash, B.; Kumar, A.; Singh, S.; Mishra, P.K.; Dubey, N.K. Chemical profile, antifungal, antiaflatoxigenic and antioxidant activity of Citrus maxima Burm. and Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck essential oils and their cyclic monoterpene, DL-limonene. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2010, 48, 1734–1740.
  96. Chee, H.Y.; Mm, H.; Lee, M.H. In vitro antifungal activity of limonene against Trichophyton rubrum. Mycobiology 2009, 37, 243–246.
  97. Goncalves, M.J.; Cruz, M.T.; Tavares, A.C.; Cavaleiro, C.; Lopes, M.C.; Canhoto, J.; Salgueiro, L. Composition and biological activity of the essential oil from Thapsia minor, a new source of geranyl acetate. Ind. Crops Prod. 2012, 35, 166–171.
  98. Rufino, A.T.; Ribeiro, M.; Judas, F.; Salgueiro, L.; Lopes, M.C.; Cavaleiro, C.; Mendes, A.F. Anti-inflammatory and chondroprotective activity of (+)-α-pinene: Structural and enantiomeric selectivity. J. Nat. Prod. 2014, 77, 264–269.
  99. Kim, D.-S.; Lee, H.-J.; Jeon, Y.-D.; Han, Y.-H.; Kee, J.-Y.; Kim, H.-J.; Shin, H.-J.; Kang, J.; Lee, B.S.; Kim, S.-H. Alpha-pinene exhibits anti-inflammatory activity through the suppression of MAPKs and the NF-κB pathway in mouse peritoneal macrophages. Am. J. Chin. Med. 2015, 43, 731–742.
  100. Kumar, R.; Prakash, O.; Pant, A.; Isidorov, V.A.; Mathela, C. Chemical composition, antioxidant and myorelaxant activity of essential oils of Globba sessiliflora Sims. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2012, 24, 385–391.
  101. Yang, X.; Zhang, H.; Zhang, Y.; Zhao, H.; Dong, A.; Xu, D.; Yang, L.; Ma, Y.; Wang, J. Analysis of the Essential Oils of Pine Cones of Pinus koraiensis Steb. Et Zucc. and P. sylvestris L. from China. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2010, 22, 446–448.
  102. Khunkitti, W.; Veerapan, P.; Hahnvajanawong, C. In vitro bioactivities of clove buds oil (Eugenia caryophyllata) and its effect on dermal fibroblast. Int. J. Pharm. Pharm. Sci. 2012, 4, 556–560.
  103. Berlett, B.S.; Stadtman, E.R. Protein oxidation in aging, disease, and oxidative stress. J. Biol. Chem. 1997, 272, 20313–20316.
  104. Salzano, S.; Checconi, P.; Hanschmann, E.-M.; Lillig, C.H.; Bowler, L.D.; Chan, P.; Vaudry, D.; Mengozzi, M.; Coppo, L.; Sacre, S. Linkage of inflammation and oxidative stress via release of glutathionylated peroxiredoxin-2, which acts as a danger signal. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2014, 111, 12157–12162.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Integrative & Complementary Medicine
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Jana Ismail
,
Wassim N. Shebaby
,
Joey Daher
,
Joelle C. Boulos
,
Robin Taleb
,
Costantine F. Daher
,
Mohamad Mroueh
View Times: 281
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 15 Mar 2024
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    ScholarVision Creations
    Feedback