Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Valeria Cavioni
 -- 1563 2024-02-19 18:08:01 |
2 layout
Jessie Wu
 Meta information modification 1563 2024-02-20 02:03:10 |

Video Upload Options

Do you have a full video?
Send video materials Upload full video

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Conte, E.; Cavioni, V.; Ornaghi, V. Coping Strategies in Italian Teachers after COVID-19. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/55191 (accessed on 19 May 2024).
Conte E, Cavioni V, Ornaghi V. Coping Strategies in Italian Teachers after COVID-19. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/55191. Accessed May 19, 2024.
Conte, Elisabetta, Valeria Cavioni, Veronica Ornaghi. "Coping Strategies in Italian Teachers after COVID-19" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/55191 (accessed May 19, 2024).
Conte, E., Cavioni, V., & Ornaghi, V. (2024, February 19). Coping Strategies in Italian Teachers after COVID-19. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/55191
Conte, Elisabetta, et al. "Coping Strategies in Italian Teachers after COVID-19." Encyclopedia. Web. 19 February, 2024.
Coping Strategies in Italian Teachers after COVID-19
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/educsci14020152

Teaching is a mentally and physically demanding profession that can be a source of stress and burnout. The COVID-19 pandemic put further pressure on teachers who had to face sudden challenges, such as online teaching and difficulties in holding students’ attention in virtual environments. Research has demonstrated that the negative effects of stress factors on teachers’ wellbeing can be modulated by coping strategies. 

teachers stress factors coping strategies wellbeing COVID-19

1. Introduction

In recent decades, numerous studies have documented that teaching is one of the most challenging occupations because of its persistent demands and responsibilities [1][2]. Teachers of all school grades are at high risk of developing work-related stress and receiving a diagnosis of burnout syndrome, regardless of how many years of teaching experience that they might have. On the one hand, novice teachers tend to be more vulnerable in the first years of their teaching careers and are more likely to quit their job [3][4] or voluntarily migrate to other schools [5]. On the other hand, senior teachers often report decreased enthusiasm and increased dissatisfaction because of a workload that becomes harder to manage with age [6][7].
Stress factors can be attributed to both personal and organizational variables. Individual traits and resources, such as self-efficacy, emotional intelligence, and social–emotional competencies, have been reported as being protective factors against stress and mental health issues [8][9][10][11][12]. For instance, a greater or lesser ability to positively interact with students, colleagues, and other school community members can limit or buffer teachers’ stress, respectively [13]. As teachers put pupils first in their job, their relationship with students is identified as potentially being the most impactful on stress and burnout [7][14]. Collaborative and supportive relationships with colleagues can also enhance teachers’ wellbeing [7][15].
Concerning organizational variables, Van Droogenbroeck et al. [7] stated that “the working conditions of teachers have changed significantly over recent decades. Teachers have experienced a noticeable increase in high-stakes accountability demands, administrative tasks, and standardization which may cause stress and feelings of deprofessionalization. This intensification of the profession is the result of teachers being increasingly subjected to external pressures and demands from policymakers, supervisors, parents, and experts” (p. 106). Time pressure, excessive workload, adverse working conditions (e.g., class size, a lack of safety, and inadequate environments and salary), imbalance between work and family life, sudden and frequent changes due to school reforms, red tape, and a lack of positive support from school administrators have been identified worldwide as frequent causes of stress for teachers [16][17][18][19][20][21]. In the Italian context, some organizational variables related to working conditions have been recognized as particularly challenging for teachers’ wellbeing. For example, school classes are usually overpopulated (i.e., approximately 25 children per class) and often include 3–4 children with special educational needs, the salary of teachers in Italy is significantly lower than that in other European countries, and opportunities for professional career advancement are scarce [22].
Teachers’ wellbeing often depends on a combination of job demands and available resources. Simbula et al. [23] identified three profiles of Italian teachers: those who perceive that they have ample job resources and are able to use them to effectively deal with high job demands; those who perceive that they have high levels of job resources in the face of low job demands; and, finally, those with deficient job resources, who are unable to cope with job demands. The latter group tends to show negative outcomes more often than the other two. Certain factors, such as a higher self-efficacy and mentalized affectivity, more positive emotions at school, and a higher hedonic balance concerning their professional role, may diminish teachers’ risk of burnout [24][25]. Lowering the levels of burnout can have positive effects, for instance, on teachers’ constructive attitudes and confidence in professional training [26].
In contrast, work-related stress negatively affects teachers’ wellbeing. Hence, teachers may experience higher levels of mental health issues—such as depression, irritability, anxiety, and frustration [18]—lower quality interactions with children [27], less life satisfaction [10][22], and reduced self-efficacy at work [28], which also can affect students’ wellbeing and their school achievements [29][30][31][32].

2. The COVID-19 Emergency as a Stressor

The COVID-19 pandemic further exacerbated this delicate situation. To prevent contagion, governments worldwide adopted urgent containment measures, such as avoiding crowds, keeping physical distance, and staying at home. These measures resulted in the interruption of most face-to-face activities, including on-site education [33]. Schools were closed, and teachers were suddenly required to shift to distance teaching to sustain students’ learning [34]. The challenges linked to these new teaching experiences (e.g., a lack of digital competences, work–family balance, disruptive student behaviors, increased working hours, and time pressure), the risks of contagion with related depression and anxiety symptoms, and the lack of support from administrators were identified as significant stress factors during the pandemic [35][36][37][38][39][40]. The unexpected situation also had psychological effects on teachers and impacted their quality of life. In fact, teachers reported increased levels of physical and mental health problems [41][42][43][44]. When the emergency was over and teachers and students went back to on-site schooling, they had to face new environments and routines. Again, anxiety was a common feeling for teachers, as they felt fear of the COVID-19 emergency, they encountered difficulties with the new teaching modes and communication with parents, they perceived inconsistent support from the administrators, and they felt that they did not receive respect or appreciation for their work at school [37][45].
Similar perceptions and negative feelings were diffuse among most people the world over, and the people of Italy were also strongly affected by the adversity of the pandemic. In fact, Italy was one of the first countries where COVID-19 spread. At the beginning of 2020, a state of emergency was officially declared throughout the entire national territory, and strict restrictions were applied. A dramatic increase in mental health issues, such as stress, anxiety, depression, and sleep difficulties, was recorded, especially at the beginning of the pandemic [46][47]. It is noteworthy that people’s fear of COVID-19 decreased over time, positively impacting their mental health and quality of life [48].
Italian teachers also experienced higher levels of mental health issues, such as depression, than the rest of the population [39]. Most teachers were unprepared to deal with remote learning and had to make great efforts to engage and motivate their students [49], especially younger pupils who were more restless and had limited attention spans, therefore needing more frequent breaks [50]. Messineo and Tosto [36] reported that teachers who perceived distance learning as a burden also experienced higher levels of stress and negative affect. Furthermore, their findings pointed out that both a lack of emotional regulation and negative coping strategies played a significant role. Their conclusions suggested that these variables need to be taken into account when exploring teachers’ wellbeing and stress factors.

3. Dealing with Challenging Situations

Stressful events lead people to use coping strategies, which are defined as voluntary cognitive and behavioral efforts that an individual uses when facing internal and external demands [51]. Scholars distinguish between approach and avoidant coping strategies on the basis of how much they are directed to face or avoid a problematic situation [52]. Some coping strategies, such as those that are problem-focused (i.e., planning how to address the specific problem), are more effective in reducing mental health issues, whereas those based on avoidance and emotional suppression result in less desirable outcomes. Other coping strategies can be categorized as social (e.g., seeking help and support from other people), emotion-focused (e.g., positive reframing and humor to reduce negative feelings linked to the problem), and cognitive-focused (i.e., when the individual tries to rationalize and make sense of a stressful situation) [53]. Notably, distinguishing between “good” and “bad” strategies could be detrimental because, although some strategies are apparently negative, they could be the most adequate in the short term to deal with a certain situation [52].
Research on teachers has shown that these professionals mostly adopt functional (i.e., approach) coping strategies in their vocation, such as acceptance, positive reframing, planning, and active coping, whereas negative strategies are usually avoided (e.g., self-blame, denial, and the use of alcohol or drugs) [54][55]. However, the quality of the coping strategies that they adopt may depend on their levels of stress and burnout. Martinez et al. [56] found that teachers who were more personally accomplished and less emotionally exhausted more frequently adopted positive strategies, such as problem solving, seeking social support, and positive reframing. Conversely, teachers who experienced more emotional exhaustion and depersonalization often adopted non-functional strategies, such as self-criticism, resignation, and hostile attitudes.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, teachers reported that they more frequently used positive rather than negative coping strategies, and their use depended on the specific stress factor that they experienced. For instance, they used functional strategies when the stressor was related to scarce parental engagement, and they used dysfunctional strategies when they perceived a lack of digital competencies to deal with distance learning. Furthermore, teachers used more coping strategies, especially negative ones (i.e., avoidant strategies), when they perceived higher levels of stress [34][55]. Messineo and Tosto [36] investigated the coping strategies that Italian teachers adopted during the COVID-19 pandemic (Spring 2021). Specifically, they found that higher levels of perceived stress were associated with negative coping strategies, such as the avoidance of the problem and less positive attitudes (i.e., accepting a challenging event and looking at it in a positive light). Interestingly, more stressed teachers sought more social support, which scholars also interpreted as a “negative” coping strategy because interactions with friends, colleagues, or relatives may intensify negative feelings and problems, without helping the individual to find a solution.

References

  1. Kidger, J.; Brockman, R.; Tilling, K.; Campbell, R.; Ford, T.; Araya, R.; King, M.; Gunnell, D. Teachers’ wellbeing and depressive symptoms, and associated risk factors: A large cross sectional study in English secondary schools. J. Affect. Disord. 2016, 192, 76–82.
  2. Stansfeld, S.A.; Rasul, F.R.; Head, J.; Singleton, N. Occupation and mental health in a national UK survey. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr. Epidemiol. 2011, 46, 101–110.
  3. Gavish, B.; Friedman, I.A. Novice teachers’ experience of teaching: A dynamic aspect of burnout. Soc. Psychol. Educ. 2010, 13, 141–167.
  4. Harmsen, R.; Helms-Lorenz, M.; Maulana, R.; van Veen, K. The longitudinal effects of induction on beginning teachers’ stress. Br. J. Educ. Psychol. 2019, 89, 259–287.
  5. Ryan, S.V.; Nathaniel, P.; Pendergast, L.L.; Saeki, E.; Segool, N.; Schwing, S. Leaving the teaching profession: The role of teacher stress and educational accountability policies on turnover intent. Teach. Teach. Educ. 2017, 66, 1–11.
  6. Van Droogenbroeck, F.V.; Spruyt, B. To stop or not to stop: An empirical assessment of the determinants of early retirement among active and retired senior teachers. Res. Aging 2014, 36, 753–777.
  7. Van Droogenbroeck, F.; Spruyt, B.; Vanroelen, C. Burnout among senior teachers: Investigating the role of workload and interpersonal relationships at work. Teach. Teach. Educ. 2014, 43, 99–109.
  8. Cavioni, C.; Grazzani, I.; Ornaghi, V.; Agliati, A.; Gandellini, S.; Cefai, C.; Camilleri, L.; Bartolo, P.; Tatalovic Vorkapic, S.; Golob, L.; et al. A multi-component curriculum to promote teachers’ mental health: Findings from the PROMEHS program. Int. J. Emot. Educ. 2023, 15, 34–52.
  9. Collie, R.J.; Malmberg, L.-E.; Martin, A.J.; Sammons, P.; Morin, A.J.S. A multilevel person-centered examination of teachers’ workplace demands and resources: Links with work-related well-being. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 626.
  10. Luque-Reca, O.; García-Martínez, I.; Pulido-Martos, M.; Burguera, J.L.; Augusto-Landa, J.M. Teachers’ life satisfaction: A structural equation model analyzing the role of trait emotion regulation, intrinsic job satisfaction and affect. Teach. Teach. Educ. 2022, 113, 103668.
  11. Mariani, A.M.; Piceci, L.; Melchiori, F.M. Protective factors for teachers’ work stress: Psychoeducational programs based on self-efficacy and hope to reinforce personal resources. Ital. J. Educ. Res. 2020, 25, 127–136.
  12. Pulido-Martos, M.; Lopez-Zafra, E.; Estévez-López, F.; Augusto-Landa, J.M. The moderator role of perceived emotional intelligence in the relationship between sources of stress and mental health in teachers. Span. J. Psychol. 2016, 19, E7.
  13. Jennings, P.A.; Greenberg, M.T. The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to student and classroom outcomes. Rev. Educ. Res. 2009, 79, 491–525.
  14. Roffey, S. Pupil wellbeing—Teacher wellbeing: Two sides of the same coin? Educ. Child Psychol. 2012, 29, 8–17.
  15. Hascher, T.; Waber, J. Teacher well-being: A systematic review of the research literature from the year 2000–2019. Educ. Res. Rev. 2021, 34, 100411.
  16. Ballet, K.; Kelchtermans, G. Struggling with workload: Primary teachers’ experience of intensification. Teach. Teach. Educ. 2009, 25, 1150–1157.
  17. Borrelli, I.; Benevene, P.; Fiorilli, C.; D’Amelio, F.; Pozzi, G. Working conditions and mental health in teachers: A preliminary study. Occup. Med. 2014, 64, 530–532.
  18. Chang, M.L. An appraisal perspective of teacher burnout: Examining the emotional work of teachers. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 2009, 21, 193–218.
  19. Collie, R.J. A multilevel examination of teachers’ occupational commitment: The roles of job resources and disruptive student behavior. Soc. Psychol. Educ. 2021, 24, 387–411.
  20. Guglielmi, D.; Panari, C.; Simbula, S. The determinants of teachers’ well-being. The mediating role of mental fatigue. Eur. J. Ment. Health 2012, 7, 204–220.
  21. O’Brennan, L.; Pas, E.; Bradshaw, C.; Reschly, A. Multilevel examination of burnout among high school staff: Importance of staff and school factors. School Psych. Rev. 2017, 46, 165–176.
  22. Fiorilli, C.; Albanese, O.; Gabola, P.; Pepe, A. Teachers’ emotional competence and social support: Assessing the mediating role of teacher burnout. Scand. J. Educ. Res. 2017, 61, 127–138.
  23. Simbula, S.; Panari, C.; Guglielmi, D.; Fraccaroli, F. Teachers’ well-being and effectiveness: The role of the interplay between job demands and job resources. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 2012, 69, 729–738.
  24. Buonomo, I.; Fatigante, M.; Fiorilli, C. Teachers’ burnout profile: Risk and protective factors. Open Psychol. J. 2017, 10, 190–201.
  25. Levante, A.; Petrocchi, S.; Bianco, F.; Castelli, I.; Lecciso, F. Teachers during the COVID-19 era: The mediation role played by mentalizing ability on the relationship between depressive symptoms, anxious trait, and job burnout. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 859.
  26. Fiorilli, C.; Buonomo, I.; Romano, L.; Passiatore, Y.; Iezzi, D.F.; Santoro, P.E.; Benevene, P.; Pepe, A. Teacher confidence in professional training: The predictive roles of engagement and burnout. Sustainability 2020, 12, 6345.
  27. Ansari, A.; Pianta, R.C.; Whittaker, J.V.; Vitiello, V.E.; Ruzek, E.A. Preschool teachers’ emotional exhaustion in relation to classroom instruction and teacher-child interactions. Early Educ. Dev. 2022, 33, 107–120.
  28. Tsouloupas, C.N.; Carson, R.L.; Matthews, R.; Grawitch, M.J.; Barber, L.K. Exploring the association between teachers’ perceived student misbehaviour and emotional exhaustion: The importance of teacher efficacy beliefs and emotion regulation. Educ. Psychol. 2010, 30, 173–189.
  29. Braun, S.S.; Schonert-Reichl, K.A.; Roeser, R.W. Effects of teachers’ emotion regulation, burnout, and life satisfaction on student well-being. J. Appl. Dev. Psychol. 2020, 69, 101151.
  30. Harding, S.; Morris, R.; Gunnell, D.; Ford, T.; Hollingworth, W.; Tilling, K.; Evans, R.; Bell, S.; Grey, J.; Brockman, R.; et al. Is teachers’ mental health and wellbeing associated with students’ mental health and wellbeing? J. Affect. Disord. 2019, 242, 180–187.
  31. Klusmann, U.; Richter, D.; Lüdtke, O. Teachers’ emotional exhaustion is negatively related to students’ achievement: Evidence from a large-scale assessment study. J. Educ. Psychol. 2016, 108, 1193–1203.
  32. Ramberg, J.; Brolin Låftman, S.; Åkerstedt, T.; Modin, B. Teacher stress and students’ school well-being: The case of upper secondary schools in Stockholm. Scand. J. Educ. Res. 2019, 64, 816–830.
  33. Manchia, M.; Gathier, A.W.; Yapici-Eser, H.; Schmidt, M.V.; de Quervain, D.; van Amelsvoort, T.; Bisson, J.I.; Cryan, J.F.; Howes, O.D.; Pinto, L.; et al. The impact of the prolonged COVID-19 pandemic on stress resilience and mental health: A critical review across waves. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2022, 55, 22–83.
  34. Klapproth, F.; Federkeil, L.; Heinschke, F.; Jungman, T. Teachers’ experiences of stress and their coping strategies during COVID-19 induced distance teaching. J. Pedagogical Res. 2020, 4, 444–452.
  35. Collie, R.J. Job demands and resources, teachers’ subjective vitality, and turnover intentions: An examination during COVID-19. Educ. Psychol. 2022, 43, 452–471.
  36. Messineo, L.; Tosto, C. Perceived stress and affective experience in Italian teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic: Correlation with coping and emotion regulation strategies. Eur. J. Psychol. Educ. 2022, 38, 1271–1293.
  37. Pressley, T. Factors contributing to teacher burnout during COVID-19. Educ. Res. 2021, 50, 325–327.
  38. Toto, G.A.; Limone, P. Motivation, stress and impact of online teaching on Italian teachers during COVID-19. Computers 2021, 10, 75.
  39. Truzoli, R.; Pirola, V.; Conte, S. The impact of risk and protective factors on online teaching experience in high school Italian teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic. J. Comput. Assist. Learn. 2021, 37, 940–952.
  40. Hascher, T.; Beltman, S.; Mansfield, C. Swiss primary teachers’ professional well-being during school closure due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Front. Psychol. 2021, 12, 687512.
  41. Lizana, P.A.; Vega-Fernadez, G. Teacher teleworking during the COVID-19 pandemic: Association between work hours, work–family balance and quality of life. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7566.
  42. Lizana, P.A.; Vega-Fernadez, G.; Gomez-Bruton, A.; Leyton, B.; Lera, L. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on teacher quality of life: A longitudinal study from before and during the health crisis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 3764.
  43. Katsarou, E.; Chatzipanagiotou, P.; Sougari, A.-M. A Systematic Review on Teachers’ Well-Being in the COVID-19 Era. Educ. Sci. 2023, 13, 927.
  44. Sigursteinsdottir, H.; Rafnsdottir, G.L. The well-being of primary school teachers during COVID-19. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 11177.
  45. Quinn, E.L.; Stover, B.; Otten, J.J.; Seixas, N. Early care and education workers’ experience and stress during the COVID-19 pandemic. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 2670.
  46. Cavazzoni, F.; Pancake, R.; Veronese, G. Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on mental health and quality of life. An exploratory study during the first outbreak in Italy. Psychol. Rep. 2022, 126, 1661–1683.
  47. Veronese, G.; Cavazzoni, F.; Fiore, F.; Pancake, R. Fear of COVID-19 mediates the relation between mental distress and at-risk health behaviours in Italian adults. Mediterr. J. Clin. Psychol. 2021, 9, 1–19.
  48. Veronese, G.; Cavazzoni, F.; Pepe, A. Trajectories of quality of life and mental health during the COVID-19 lockdown and six months after in Italy. A longitudinal exploration. J. Public Health 2023, 1–11.
  49. Mascheroni, G.; Saeed, M.; Valenza, M.; Cino, D.; Dreesen, T.; Zaffaroni, L.G.; Kardefelt-Winther, D. Learning at a Distance. Children’s Remote Learning Experiences in Italy during the COVID-19 Pandemic; UNICEF Office of Research—Innocenti: Firenze, Italy, 2021.
  50. Scarpellini, F.; Segre, G.; Cartabia, M.; Zanetti, M.; Campi, R.; Clavenna, A.; Bonati, M. Distance learning in Italian primary and middle school children during the COVID-19 pandemic: A national survey. BMC Public Health 2021, 21, 1035.
  51. Lazarus, R.; Folkman, S. Stress, Appraisal, and Coping; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 1984.
  52. Carver, C.S.; Scheier, M.F.; Weintraub, J.K. Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 1989, 56, 267–283.
  53. Algorani, E.B.; Gupta, V. Coping Mechanisms; StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island, FL, USA, 2023.
  54. Rajesh, C.; Ashok, L.; Rao, C.R.; Kamath, V.G.; Kamath, A.; Chandra Sekaran, V.; Devaramane, V.; Thippe Swamy, V.J. Psychological well-being and coping strategies among secondary school teachers: A cross-sectional study. Educ. Health Promot. 2022, 11, 152.
  55. MacIntyre, P.D.; Gregersen, T.; Mercer, S. Language teachers’ coping strategies during the COVID-19 conversion to online teaching: Correlations with stress, wellbeing and negative emotions. System 2020, 94, 102352.
  56. Martinez, J.P.; Méndez, I.; Ruiz-Esteban, C.; Fernández-Sogorb, A.; García-Fernández, J.M. Profiles of burnout, coping strategies and depressive symptomatology. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 591.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Public, Environmental & Occupational Health
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Elisabetta Conte
,
Valeria Cavioni
,
Veronica Ornaghi
View Times: 90
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 20 Feb 2024
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    Feedback