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Zhakipbekov, K.; Turgumbayeva, A.; Akhelova, S.; Bekmuratova, K.; Blinova, O.; Utegenova, G.; Shertaeva, K.; Sadykov, N.; Tastambek, K.; Saginbazarova, A.; et al. Antimicrobial Properties of Ocimum basilicum, Lamiaceae. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/54774 (accessed on 30 June 2024).
Zhakipbekov K, Turgumbayeva A, Akhelova S, Bekmuratova K, Blinova O, Utegenova G, et al. Antimicrobial Properties of Ocimum basilicum, Lamiaceae. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/54774. Accessed June 30, 2024.
Zhakipbekov, Kairat, Aknur Turgumbayeva, Sholpan Akhelova, Kymbat Bekmuratova, Olga Blinova, Gulnara Utegenova, Klara Shertaeva, Nurlan Sadykov, Kuanysh Tastambek, Akzharkyn Saginbazarova, et al. "Antimicrobial Properties of Ocimum basilicum, Lamiaceae" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/54774 (accessed June 30, 2024).
Zhakipbekov, K., Turgumbayeva, A., Akhelova, S., Bekmuratova, K., Blinova, O., Utegenova, G., Shertaeva, K., Sadykov, N., Tastambek, K., Saginbazarova, A., Urazgaliyev, K., Tulegenova, G., Zhalimova, Z., & Karasova, Z. (2024, February 05). Antimicrobial Properties of Ocimum basilicum, Lamiaceae. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/54774
Zhakipbekov, Kairat, et al. "Antimicrobial Properties of Ocimum basilicum, Lamiaceae." Encyclopedia. Web. 05 February, 2024.
Antimicrobial Properties of Ocimum basilicum, Lamiaceae
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/molecules29020388

Since ancient times, various scientists and doctors have utilized different herbs to heal diseases. Due to the rise in drug resistance and the negative effects of chemosynthetic drugs, researchers and the general public around the world have become more interested in medicinal herbs and plant metabolites/extracts. This is due to its non-toxicity and its several health benefits when used to treat diseases in clinical and medical settings. Ocimum basilicum is one such plant, possessing a wide range of bioactive phytochemicals including alkaloids, phenolics, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, reducing sugars, cardiac glycosides, steroids and glycosides, as well as complex pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antibacterial, antioxidant, wound healing and antiviral properties.

 Ocimum basilicum antimicrobial antifungal activity antibacterial activity

1. Introduction

Due to increases in drug resistance and the negative effects of chemosynthetic drugs, the interest of researchers and the general public around the world in medicinal plants and plant metabolites/extracts is growing [1][2][3][4]. This is due to the non-toxic nature and numerous health benefits of these substances when used in clinical and medical settings to treat diseases [5][6]. In addition, as a result of scientific progress, many herbs, plant metabolites and phytoconstituents have been developed, promoted and widely used [7][8]. This is due to their recognized and potential health benefits, as well as their medicinal effectiveness against many diseases, both infectious and non-infectious. Interestingly, herbs often show promise in combating antibiotic resistance, helping to prevent dreaded infections [9]. Ocimum basilicum is one such example of a whole plant that contains a variety of bioactive phytochemicals that provide various therapeutic effects (Figure 1). Ocimum basilicum belongs to the Lamiaceae family, previously known as Labiatae, which also includes mint (Mentha spp.), thyme (Thymus vulgaris), sage (Salvia officinalis), rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus, formerly Rosmarinus officinalis) and oregano (Origanum vulgare). Terpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, phenolic compounds, cardiac glycosides, saponins, glycosides, reducing sugars and steroids are just a few of Ocimum basilicum’s many bioactive metabolites. Ocimum basilicum demonstrates various pharmacological activities, including wound-healing, antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory qualities (Figure 2) [10][11][12][13]. It is a cheap and widely available medicinal plant, which has been utilized for millennia [14]. This plant grows throughout the world, including in Southeast Asia, India [15], Pakistan, Nepal (Himalayan region) and other countries, as well as tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of Western Asia and Africa [16][17]. This plant is widely available throughout the world, making it easy to purchase and use for many everyday protective purposes [18]. In the systems of Ayurvedic and Unani medicine, it is considered an important element in the treatment of many physiological and lifestyle disorders [19]. In addition, Ocimum basilicum is found in many dietary supplements that support and improve health [20][21]. 
Figure 1. Picture of Ocimum basilicum.
Figure 2. Pharmacological properties and phytochemical components of Ocimum basilicum.

2. Phytoconstituents

Major studies seeking to determine the phytochemical composition of Ocimum basilicum have been conducted using essential oils isolated from Ocimum basilicum. Ocimum basilicum essential oils are mixtures of aromatic, volatile organic, and natural compounds produced by the plant as secondary metabolites which play a protective role for the plant; they can be extracted from various parts of the plant, including flowers, roots, bark, leaves and seeds [22]. These complex mixtures of volatile secondary metabolites are present as saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, ethers, ketones, alkaloids, phenolics, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, reducing sugars, cardiac glycosides, steroids and glycosides [23][24][25][26][27]. However, most studies have shown that the main compounds are estragole, linalool, eugenol, methyl chavicol, methyl eugenol, 1,8-cineole, eucalyptol and bergamotene, at varying concentrations (Figure 3) [28][29][30]. The chemical compounds of Ocimum basilicum essential oil undergo quantitative and qualitative changes depending on their genetic characteristics, developmental stage, climatic conditions, drying conditions and storage conditions, as well as the properties of their soils [31]. Table 1 shows the variety of essential oils’ chemical compositions and presents the percentage of each compound present in the essential oil of Ocimum basilicum. These variations can be attributed to the area where the oil is collected, the extraction technique, and the portion of the plant from which the oil is extracted.
Figure 3. Chemical structures of the main biological active components of Ocimum basilicum.
Table 1. Major biological active compounds of Ocimum basilicum.
Extracts Plant Part Method Biological Active Compounds Pharmacology Activity Country Ref.
Essential oil Leaves, seed, root GC/MS Menthone (33.1%), oxygenated monoterpenoids (77.8%), estragole (21.5%), oxygenated monoterpenes (75.3%), isoneomenthol (7.5%), transcaryophyllene (2.2%), menthol (6.1%), limonene (1.5%), pulegone (3.7%), sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (8.8%), trans-β-farnesene (1.1%), germacrene D (1.4%), α-amorphene (1.1%), menthyl acetate (5.6%), α-cadinol (2.9%), methyl eugenol (1%), sesquiterpenoids (12.8%). Antioxidant,
Antimicrobial,
Ani-Inflammatory		 Iran [32]
Essential oil Leaves, seed GC/MS Bolloso Napoletano: linalool (47.75%), 1,8-cineole (10.23%), methyl chavicol (20.21%); Foglie di Lattuga: linalool (48.65%), 1,8-cineole (12.59%), methyl chavicol (18.55%). Thai Siam: linalool (36.60%), methyl chavicol (7.50%), (E)-methyl cinnamate (21.90%). Antioxidant,
Anti-Inflammatory,
Antiviral		 Poland [33]
Etanolic,
Metanolic		 Stem, seed HPLC, GC/MS 1,6-octadiene-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl (29.49%), eucalyptol (3.31%), cis-alpha-bisabolene (1.92%), trans-alpha-bergamotene (5.32%), beta-myrcene (1.11%), levomenthol (1.81%). Antimicrobial, Antioxidant South Africa [34]
Etanolic,
Metanolic		 Leaves, seed, root HPLC,
GC/MS		 1,8-cineole (10.56%), linalool 48.4%, methyl chavicol 14.3%, α-bergamotene 27%, oxygen monoterpenes (57.42%), β-bisabolol 4.1%, methyl eugenol (10.09%), stragol (55.95%), sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (6.9%). Antioxidant,
Anti-Inflammatory, Antifungal		 Egypt [35]
Essential oil Leaves GC/MS Linalyl acetate (19.1%), linalool (52.1%). Aliphatic compounds (9980–17,929 nanograms per gram fresh weight), including (E)-2-hexenal: 1519–1991, (Z)-3-hexenal (4991–10731), (E)-2-hexen-1-ol: 75–144, (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol: 1436–2219, n-hexanol: 73 –175, 1-octen-3-ol: 1610–2689, (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate: 54–99; eugenol (66,142–131,926). α-pinene: 875–1198, camphene: 153–295, β-pinene: 1780–2771, 2-carene: 42–142, myrcene: 2770–3030, limonene: 712–870, 1,8-cineole: 26,640–52,799, 3-carene: 41–48, linalool: 42,726–65,033, bornyl acetate: 332–1163, camphor: 164–463, tepinen-4-ol: 185–364, eugenol: 945 –1948, α-terpineol: 159–310, α-bergamotene: 202–406 and (E,E)-α farnesene: 32–65), α-humulene: 141–538, caryophyllene: 641–1432. Wound Healing,
Antiviral,
Antimicrobial		 Algeria [36][37]
Essential oil Leaves HPLC, GC/MS Linalool and 1,8-cineole. Antimicrobial
and Antioxidant		 Serbia [38]
Essential oil Leaves, stem HPLC, GC/MS Limonene (30.9%), p-cymene (2.6%), linalool (18.9%), thymol (6.5%), B-phellandrene (15.3%), O-cardinol (2.6%). Antimicrobial
and Antioxidant		 Cameroon [39]
Etanolic,
n-hexane		 Leaves, stem TLC, HPLC Estragole (>35.71%), trans-α-bergamotene (>0.83%), (E)-β-ocimene (>1.47%), eucalyptol (>0.25%), τ-cadinol (>0.41%). Antimicrobial
and Antioxidant		 Malaysia [40]
Essential oil Leaves FT-IR, GC/MS Eugenol (61.76%), [2-methyl-4-(1))-propyl)phenoxy]silane (2.01%), 2,3-dihydroxypropyl elaidate (5.10%), isopropyl palpitate (11.36%), 2-methoxy-4-(1-propyl)phenol (2.65%), α-cubene (3.85%), vanillin (1.27%), 1-methyl-3-(1-methyl)benzene (1.73%), 1,4-diethylbenzene (1.03%), hexadecanoic acid methyl ester (2.51%). Wound Healing Bangladesh [41]
Essential oil Leaves HPLC Methyleugenol (15.5%), patchoulan (6.7%), 2-phenyl-1-hexanol (14.0%), o-nitrocumene (14.0%), 2-methyl- 3,5-dodecadiine (14.0%), 1-(4,5-dimethyl-2-nitrophenyl)-1H-tetraazole (14.0%). Antimicrobial
and Antioxidant		 Nigeria [42]

3. Antibacterial Activity

In a study by Adigüzel et al., Ocimum basilicum extract’s antimicrobial properties in ethanol, methanol and hexane were tested in vitro. Using disk diffusion and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) approaches, 146 microorganisms from 55 distinct bacterial species and four different types of fungus and yeast were investigated. For the 146 bacteria tested, methanol and ethanol extracts demonstrated 10% and 9% inhibition, respectively, while hexane extract showed stronger and more comprehensive antibacterial activity. The ethanol, hexane and methanol extracts’ minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were 125–250 μL/mL, 62.50–250 μL/mL, and 250–500 μL/mL, in this order [43]. In a similar study, the antibacterial activity of Ocimum basilicum extracts (ethanol, methanol, and water, respectively) was tested by the presence or absence of obvious growth in the area surrounding the wells. The widest MIC range was 3.125–25 μg/mL for methanol extracts, and then the range gradually narrowed to 6.25–25 μg/mL for ethanol extracts and 12.5–25 μg/mL for aqueous extracts. B. subtilis was the organism most sensitive to both of the ethanolic extracts, respectively. The MIC of the methanol extract was 3.125 μg/mL, and the MIC of ethanol extract was 6.25 μg/mL. The MBC results showed that the ethanolic extract had the highest efficacy against E. coli, at a concentration of 100 μg/mL, and the aqueous extract had the highest efficacy, at a concentration of 250 μg/mL, against Staphylococcus aureus and E. coli (Table 2) [44]. Also, among bacterial strains, Staphylococcus aureus is highly sensitive to alcoholic extracts with concentrations of 8 mg/mL. Minimal inhibitory doses of 14, 16 and 20 mg/mL of ethanol, methanol, and aqueous extracts inhibited vancomycin-resistant enterococci [45]. Moreover, the flower oil extract showed the strongest antibacterial properties against Staphylococcus aureus, with the highest inhibition zone, of 15.47 mm, the lowest minimum inhibitory concentration MIC (0.09 μg/mL) and a correspondingly low minimum bactericidal concentration MBC (0.19 μg/mL) [46]. Ocimum basilicum extract has the ability to inhibit bacterial growth due to its rich content of phenolic compounds, such as eugenol, methyl eugenol, benzoic acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, salicylic acid and phenol. Phenolic compounds have many effects on microorganisms, such as altering the permeability of microbial cell membranes due to the accumulation of hydrophobic groups in the phospholipid bilayer, disrupting membrane integrity, causing leakage in intracellular components, and ultimately leading to cell death. Phenolic compounds can also bind to enzymes and inhibit their functions, including those related to protein, DNA, and RNA synthesis. Ocimum basilicum extract also contains terpene compounds such as phytol; 3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol; lupeol; and beta-amyrin, which act on and destroy the cell membranes of microorganisms. Furthermore, antibacterial activity is associated with the presence of fatty acids. Ocimum basilicum extract is rich in saturated and unsaturated fatty acids with long carbon chains of 16 or more. Fatty acids with carbon chains of six or less inhibit Gram-negative bacteria, whereas Gram-positive bacteria are inhibited by fatty acids with carbon chains greater than twelve, and yeasts are inhibited by fatty acids with carbon chains of ten to twelve.
Table 2. Antimicrobial activity of Ocimum basilicum extracts.
Tested Microorganism Ethanolic
Extract		 Methanolic
Extract		 Aqueous
Extract		 Acetone Extract Linalool Ref.
Diameter of inhibition zone (mm)  
S. aureus 20.4 ± 1.0 26.9 ± 1.2 24.1 ± 1.2 21.2 ± 1.2 26.1 ± 1.1 [44][45][46]
P. multocida 24.4 ± 1.1 25.3 ± 1.1 23.2 ± 1.4 22.2 ± 1.3 24.0 ± 1.0 [43]
B. subtilis 13.2 ± 0.8 19.5 ± 1.1 13.5 ± 0.8 11.4 ± 0.6 16.2 ± 1.0 [44]
E. coli 13.6 ± 0.8 22.3 ± 1.0 18.4 ± 1.0 16.1 ± 1.0 18.0 ± 0.9 [44]
M. mucedo 19.4 ± 1.1 21.4 ± 1.0 17.7 ± 1.3 15.2 ± 0.7 11.7 ± 0.7 [43]
A. niger 21.6 ± 1.2 23.3 ± 0.8 20.4 ± 1.2 18.4 ± 1.2 18.7 ± 0.7 [43]
F. solani 13.6 ± 0.8 11.2 ± 0.6 9.7 ± 0.6 11.1 ± 0.9 9.7 ± 0.6 [43]
R. solani 17.2 ± 1.0 17.6 ± 1.0 16.6 ± 1.0 14.3 ± 1.1 13.6 ± 0.8 [43]
B. theobromae 13.5 ± 0.8 17.3 ± 0.8 14.3 ± 0.8 12.3 ± 0.7 10.3 ± 0.6 [43]
Minimum inhibitory concentration (mg/mL)  
S. aureus 1.2 ± 0.0 0.8 ± 0.0 0.8 ± 0.0 1.4 ± 0.0 0.3 ± 0.0 [44][45][46]
P. multocida 1.5 ± 0.0 0.9 ± 0.0 1.1 ± 0.0 1.3 ± 0.0 0.4 ± 0.0 [43]
B. subtilis 0.06 ± 0.1 0.03 ± 0.1 2.0 ± 0.1 2.6 ± 0.1 0.9 ± 0.0 [44]
E. coli 2.2 ± 0.1 4.5 ± 0.2 2.7 ± 0.1 3.2 ± 0.2 1.0 ± 0.1 [44]
M. mucedo 2.0 ± 0.1 1.7 ± 0.1 2.3 ± 0.1 1.9 ± 0.1 0.9 ± 0.0 [43]
A. niger 3.0 ± 0.2 5.0 ± 0.3 2.9 ± 0.2 4.3 ± 0.2 1.5 ± 0.1 [43]
F. solani 2.7 ± 0.1 4.9 ± 0.2 3.2 ± 0.2 3.6 ± 0.2 1.6 ± 0.1 [43]
R. solani 2.3 ± 0.1 4.6 ± 0.2 2.9 ± 0.2 4.1 ± 0.2 1.1 ± 0.0 [43]
B. theobromae 3.8 ± 0.2 5.1 ± 0.3 4.6 ± 0.2 4.9 ± 0.3 1.9 ± 0.1 [43]
Ocimum basilicum essential oil had strong antibacterial effects against all strains of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria tested in a study of the oil’s effect on the growth of eleven different types of microorganisms. Compared with the commercial antibiotic ciprofloxacin, Ocimum basilicum essential oil showed greater antibacterial activity against S. enterica, P. stuartii, coagulase-positive Staphylococci, and group D streptococci. Additionally, compared with the commercial antibiotic gentamicin, Ocimum basilicum essential oil showed greater antibacterial activity against species of Salmonella, E. coli, S. enterica, P. stuartii, coagulase-positive Staphylococci and group D streptococci. The smallest inhibition zone was 9.66 mm, for B. cereus, and the largest was 40.00 mm, for coagulase-positive Staphylococcus, which indicates a strong inhibitory effect of Ocimum basilicum essential oil [47]. On the other hand, the most sensitive microorganisms were B. subtilis and S. aureus, with the biggest inhibition zones (22.2–24.4 mm) and the lowest MIC values (0.9 mg/mL) (0.8 mg/mL), respectively, against nine “pathominimum” inhibitory concentrations (MICs). These findings are based on the antimicrobial activity levels of essential oils obtained from Ocimum basilicum, which was collected seasonally in winter and autumn. Less activity was noted against M. mucedo with the smallest zones of inhibition (9.7–13.6 mm) and the highest MIC values (3.8–5.1 mg/mL). At MIC values of 0.3–1.9 mg/mL, linalool isolated from seasonally collected essential oils of Ocimum basilicum exhibited greater antibacterial activity than the whole oils. Research efforts have indicated that linalool and Ocimum basilicum essential oil are more effective against bacterial strains than antifungal strains. Linalool and essential oils often showed greater antibacterial activity against Gram-positive microorganisms [24]. It was also found that the microorganisms S. aureus, B. subtilis, A. fumigatus, S. faecalis, S. epidermidis, P. chrysogenum and A. niger were more sensitive to the essential oil, with MBC values of 0.143 ± 0.031, 0.260 ± 0.080, 0.312 ± 0.171, 0.364 ± 0.127, 0.416 ± 0.415, 0.416 ± 0.161 and 0.442 ± 0.207 mg/mL, respectively. At the same time, the microorganisms M. flavus, M. luteus, P. mirabilis, P. vulgaris and P. aeruginosa turned out to be moderately sensitive, with MBC values of 0.520 ± 0.161, 0.572 ± 0.127, 0.781 ± 0.382, 0.833 ± 0.322 and 0.937 ± 0.342, respectively. Microorganisms E. aerogenes, S. marcescens, S. typhimurium, E. coli and K. pneumoniae were less sensitive and had higher MBC values (MBC > 1.0 mg/mL). Essential oils tested for their antibacterial properties showed greater effects against Gram-positive bacteria [48][49]. According to another study, among Gram-positive bacteria, Bacillus subtilis exhibits maximum antimicrobial activity at a concentration of 25 μL of pure oil (without dilution), with a zone of inhibition diameter of 41.50 ± 0.31 mm, whereas diluting the essential oil 1:1 and 1:5 also showed good results: 39.00 ± 0.53 mm and 33.00 ± 0.26 mm, respectively. For Enterococcus faecalis in pure oil/1:1/1:5 dilution, the inhibition zone diameter (IZD) was 38.00 ± 0.24 mm, 31.66 ± 1.06 mm and 28.00 ± 0.53 mm, respectively. The Staphylococcus aureus IZD was 34.00 ± 0.31 mm for discs soaked in 25 μL of pure essential oil and decreased with increasing essential-oil dilution. In the present study, the antimicrobial activity of Ocimum basilicum essential oil was also evaluated against three Gram-negative bacteria, including Salmonella typhimurium, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli. However, unlike other studies, all Gram-negative bacteria were susceptible to the essential oil of Ocimum basilicum. Among the bacteria studied, S. typhimurium had the largest inhibitory zone diameter, of 33.00 ± 1.06 at pure oil concentration, followed by 27.00 ± 1.41 mm and 22.25 ± 1.77 mm at ether dilutions of the oil of 1:1 and 1:5 respectively. K. pneumoniae and E. coli showed IZDs of 31.50 ± 0.70 mm and 30.00 ± 0.35 mm, respectively, at the above-mentioned net essential-oil concentrations [50][51].
Most essential oils tested for antibacterial properties also demonstrated higher efficacy against Gram-positive bacteria in comparison to Gram-negative bacteria. This is because the presence of an outer membrane composed of lipopolysaccharides allows Gram-negative bacteria to protect themselves by limiting the penetration of hydrophobic compounds such as essential oil. Thus, the essential oil may be unable to properly attack the phospholipid layers of bacterial cells, compromising their permeability and integrity. Ocimum basilicum essential oil showed high antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria, which is due to the essential oil’s main components, namely, phenolic component—estragole and monoterpenoid compound—linalool. The presence of these components in essential oil may promote antimicrobial activity by disrupting the permeability and integrity of bacterial membranes, producing intracellular ATP and potassium ion leakage, and leading to cell death.
Studying the antimicrobial potential of Ocimum basilicum leaf essential oil (OEFOb), its main compound estragole (ES) and its estragole/β-cyclodextrin complex (ES/β-CD) in adult zebrafish (aZF) showed good results. Antimicrobial activity was assessed by the broth microdilution method, with determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and evaluation of the potentiation effect in vitro adapted from the in vivo infection method for S. aureus and E. coli in aZF. According to the results, OEFOb showed MIC values of 2048 μg/mL against the strains in the in vitro assay; on the other hand, estragole and its ES/β-CD complex showed MIC values of 1024 μg/mL. An in vivo infection model of S. aureus and E. coli on aZF was established at 24 and 48 h post-challenge with bacterial inoculum. Oral administration of the OEFOb, ES, and ES/β-CD complex did not cause mortality in aZF during up to 48 h of testing, and also reduced infections induced by S. aureus ATCC 25923 and E. coli ATCC 2592 in aZF, demonstrating clinically significant effects. When testing the synergistic effects, the complex of OEFOb, ES, and ES/β-CD was significantly effective against the strains studied, with the ES/β-CD complex giving more significant results when combined with gentamicin [52].

4. Antifungal Activity

The antifungal activity of the ethanolic extract of Ocimum basilicum was tested using the agar plate method against F. verticillioides, F. subglutinans, F. proliferatum and Fusarium oxysporum isolated from the pomace. The growth of F. subglutinans (44.30 and 33.37%, respectively) and F. proliferatum (29.27 and 24.74%, respectively) was significantly inhibited by extract concentrations of 0.35 and 0.70% (v/v), while other species were less sensitive. Ocimum basilicum extract at a concentration of 1.50% (v/v) completely inhibited the growth of the Fusarium species tested. All species tested showed a reduction in aerial mycelial growth at higher concentrations (0.35 and 0.70% (v/v)). F. proliferatum and F. verticillioides had strong medium pigmentation. Microscopic examination of the samples showed hyphal deformations as well as frequent signs of fragmentation, thickening and decreased sporulation [53]. The crude methanol fraction of Ocimum basilicum was effective against eight different fungal strains. Even at the lowest dose (1 mg/mL) of the extract used, mild to moderate growth inhibition (10% to 65%) was observed. Since only 10% growth inhibition was observed at this dosage, Candida albicans appeared to be more resistant. For Curvularia lunata species, moderate inhibition (27%) was observed at a dose of 1 mg/mL. At a dose of 1 mg/mL, the effect of Penicillium was sharply inhibited (65%). Suppression of mycelial development was observed for all strains except Curvilaria lunata (43%) and Candida albicans (17%) at doses of 3 mg/mL [54]. Antifungal activity of aqueous extracts of Ocimum basilicum showed that a concentration of 10 mg/mL could inhibit the growth of Fusarium oxysporum, a fungus known to cause wilting in crops. The antifungal properties of Ocimum basilicum extract are attributed to the presence of tannins, known antimicrobial agents that can inhibit the growth of microorganisms by precipitating microbial protein and depriving them of nutrients necessary for their growth and development. Tannins are acrid, bitter plant polyphenols that either bind and precipitate or compress proteins [55].
Ocimum basilicum (Thai basil) has been tested against seven different species of rice pathogenic fungi, including Alternaria brassicicola, Bipolaris oryzae, Aspergillus flavus, Fusarium moniliforme, Pyricleriarisea, Fusarium proliferatum and Rhizoctonia solani, and it has been determined that essential oil of Ocimum basilicum inhibits spore germination and mycelial growth. The experiment was performed in vitro using PDA (potato dextrose agar) and CRD (complete randomized design) in triplicate. Ocimum basilicum oil at a concentration of 0.6% v/v showed the greatest inhibition of mycelial growth of F. moniliform (100%), F. proliferratum (49.6%) and P. grisea (100%), as measured by mycelial growth inhibition. According to data obtained 7 days after inoculation at 25 ± 2 °C, A. flavus, A. brassicicola and B. oryzae were inhibited by 59.25%, 94.62 and 97.40% at 2.0% v/v, respectively. However, Ocimum basilicum essential oil was ineffective against R. solani. Ocimum basilicum essential oil showed effectiveness against F. monoliform (91.31%) and A. brassicicola (99.74%) at a concentration of 0.8% v/v, according to the inhibition of spore germination recorded at a temperature of 25 ± 2 °C 24 h after inoculation [56].
The antifungal and antibacterial mechanisms of action of essential oils are comparable. The antifungal activity of Ocimum basilicum essential oil is mainly due to its main compounds. Numerous studies have shown that certain components of essential-oil mixtures, such as eugenol, linalool, and methyl chavicol, act synergistically in some cases, and, in others, functioning as the leading components of the mixture, damage cell membranes and affect a wide range of other cellular functions, such as energy synthesis. Proton-pump disruption, drop in membrane potential, and ATP depletion are associated with the antifungal effects of the above-mentioned key compounds of Ocimum basilicum. In addition, the effects of the activity of Ocimum basilicum essential-oil compounds are coagulation of cellular contents, leakage of cytoplasm, and, ultimately, apoptosis or cell necrosis leading to cell death [57].

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Kairat Zhakipbekov
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Aknur Turgumbayeva
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Sholpan Akhelova
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Olga Blinova
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Gulnara Utegenova
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Klara Shertaeva
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Gulbanu Tulegenova
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Zere Zhalimova
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