1. Characteristics of Collective Behavior

1.1. Spontaneity

At the heart of collective behavior is spontaneity. Unlike planned and structured activities, collective behavior emerges without explicit organization or forethought. Individuals respond impulsively to a triggering event, and the resulting actions are often immediate and unplanned. Spontaneity in collective behavior is emphasized by Charles Horton Cooley, a prominent sociologist, who noted that people in crowds often experience a "suggestibility" that leads to spontaneous and unreflective actions, influenced by the emotions and actions of others within the group.

1.2. Lack of Formal Structure

Collective behavior tends to lack a formal organizational structure. Unlike institutions with clear hierarchies and established roles, the actions within collective behavior are often decentralized. Individuals within the group take initiative without adhering to predefined roles, leading to a more fluid and dynamic interaction. This characteristic aligns with the concept of emergent norms, as theorized by Ralph Turner and Lewis Killian. Emergent norms emphasize that norms develop within a crowd, guiding behavior based on shared expectations, rather than being imposed by an external, formal structure.

1.3. Transience

Collective behavior is often transient, representing a temporary and time-sensitive response to a specific event or circumstance. Once the triggering event loses its immediacy or relevance, the collective behavior may dissipate, and individuals disperse. This transience is evident in phenomena such as flash mobs, where large groups assemble for a brief and coordinated activity, showcasing the ephemeral nature of collective behavior.

1.4. Open-Ended Goals

Goals associated with collective behavior are often open-ended and may evolve as the situation unfolds. Unlike more structured activities with predefined objectives, collective behavior is characterized by the flexibility of goals that adapt to the dynamic nature of the group's interaction. This open-endedness is exemplified in social movements, where participants may join forces to address a broad cause, and the specific goals may develop over time in response to changing circumstances.

1.5. Irrationality

Collective behavior may exhibit elements of irrationality, where individuals within the group act in ways that deviate from their typical behavior. The influence of emotions, the contagious nature of actions, and the group dynamic can contribute to decision-making that may seem impulsive or counterintuitive. Gustave Le Bon, a pioneering social psychologist, explored the concept of irrationality in crowds, highlighting how individuals in a collective setting may be swayed by the emotions and behaviors of others, leading to actions that they might not undertake individually.

2. Types of Collective Behavior

2.1. Crowds

Crowds represent a fundamental and observable form of collective behavior. They manifest in different configurations, each exhibiting distinct characteristics:

• Casual Crowds: These are gatherings of individuals who happen to be in the same place at the same time, often without significant interaction. Examples include people waiting in line or commuting together.

• Conventional Crowds: Gatherings with a specific purpose, such as audiences at concerts, sports events, or religious gatherings. These crowds have a shared focus and often follow established norms.

• Expressive Crowds: Characterized by individuals expressing shared emotions, expressive crowds often emerge during celebrations, protests, or vigils. Emotional contagion plays a significant role in shaping the behavior of participants.

• Acting Crowds: Engaged in a specific goal or activity, acting crowds are more purposeful. This category includes both positive actions, like collaborative efforts in a community project, and negative actions, such as riots or demonstrations expressing discontent.

2.2. Publics

Publics refer to groups of individuals who share a concern or interest, and they come in different forms:

• Lewinian Publics: Named after Kurt Lewin, these are individuals who share a concern but may not necessarily interact directly. Their shared interest creates a psychological connection, contributing to the emergence of collective behavior.

• Discussion Publics: Engaged in dialogue about a particular issue, these groups often form around debates, discussions, or forums facilitated by various means, including media platforms. They provide a space for the exchange of ideas and opinions.

2.3. Mass Behavior

Mass behavior involves the uncoordinated actions of individuals in response to a common stimulus. This can include panic during emergencies, large-scale migrations, or widespread reactions to significant societal changes. Mass behavior highlights the impact of shared experiences on individual actions within a larger context.

2.4. Social Movements

Social movements represent organized, collective efforts to bring about social, political, or cultural change. They come in different forms:

• Reform Movements: Seek to bring about change within existing societal structures. Examples include movements advocating for civil rights, gender equality, or environmental protection.

• Revolutionary Movements: Aim for a fundamental transformation of existing social, political, or economic structures. Historical examples include the French Revolution or more recent movements calling for systemic change.

• Resistance Movements: Oppose specific policies, actions, or societal norms. They often emerge in response to perceived injustices and work towards preventing or reversing certain changes.

2.5. Rumors and Gossip: The Informal Networks

While not always recognized as a formal type of collective behavior, the spread of rumors and gossip serves as an informal collective action. Information, whether accurate or not, can rapidly circulate within communities, shaping perceptions and influencing individual and group behavior.

3. Theories Explaining Collective Behavior

Understanding the complex and often unpredictable nature of collective behavior requires a theoretical framework that can elucidate the underlying dynamics. Several influential theories in sociology provide valuable insights into the mechanisms that drive collective actions. 

3.1. Convergence Theory: Individuals with Similar Inclinations

Convergence theory posits that individuals with similar inclinations or predispositions come together to form a crowd. Proposed by McPhail and Miller in the late 1970s, this theory suggests that people who share common attitudes or emotions converge in a specific location, giving rise to collective behavior. According to convergence theory, individuals are drawn together not solely by the situation at hand but by their pre-existing similarities. The theory emphasizes the role of shared characteristics in the formation of crowds and collective actions. Convergence theory provides insights into the initial conditions that lead individuals to come together and exhibit collective behavior.

3.2. Contagion Theory: Emotional Contagion in Groups

Contagion theory, rooted in the work of early sociologists like Gustave Le Bon, suggests that individuals in a crowd can be influenced by the emotional contagion of others. It posits that the emotions, attitudes, and behaviors of a few individuals can quickly spread throughout the group, leading to impulsive and irrational actions. The concept of emotional contagion highlights the rapid transmission of feelings within a crowd, contributing to the intensity and unpredictability of collective behavior. While contagion theory provides insights into the emotional dynamics of groups, it has faced criticism for oversimplifying the complexity of collective actions.

3.3. Emergent Norm Theory: Spontaneously Developing Norms

Emergent norm theory, introduced by Turner and Killian in the late 1950s, emphasizes the development of norms within a crowd. According to this theory, norms emerge spontaneously as individuals collectively interpret and define the situation. These emergent norms then guide behavior within the group. The theory argues that individuals in a crowd face ambiguous situations, leading them to look to others for cues on how to behave. As norms develop, they influence the actions of participants, providing a framework for understanding and interpreting the collective experience. Emergent norm theory offers insights into the social processes that shape behavior within collective settings.

3.4. Structural Strain Theory: Societal Tensions and Collective Responses

Structural strain theory, rooted in the work of Robert K. Merton, focuses on societal tensions and strains that lead to collective behavior as a response to perceived injustices or grievances. The theory suggests that when there is a disconnect between societal goals and the means available to achieve them, strain occurs, motivating collective responses. Merton identifies five possible adaptations to structural strain: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion. In the context of collective behavior, the theory helps explain how groups may form in response to societal imbalances, reflecting a collective attempt to address perceived inequalities or injustices.

3.5. Resource Mobilization Theory: Strategic Elements in Social Movements

Resource mobilization theory, developed in the late 20th century, shifts the focus from individual motivations to the strategic elements of social movements. It emphasizes the importance of resources, organization, and leadership in the success of collective actions. According to this theory, social movements require tangible and intangible resources, such as funding, organizational structures, and skilled leadership, to effectively mobilize and sustain momentum. Resource mobilization theory provides a more strategic and organized perspective on collective behavior, highlighting the role of planning and resource acquisition in the success of social movements.

4. Examples of Collective Behavior

4.1. Flash Mobs

Flash mobs are a contemporary example of collective behavior facilitated by digital communication. These are gatherings of people who assemble suddenly in a public place, perform a brief and often entertaining activity, and disperse quickly. Coordinated through social media platforms, flash mobs exemplify how technology can mobilize individuals for spontaneous and creative collective actions. These gatherings may include dance performances, freeze mobs, or other forms of artistic expression. Flash mobs highlight the influence of digital connectivity in organizing and executing collective activities, showcasing the power of social media to bring people together for shared experiences.

4.2. Political Protests

Political protests represent collective actions aimed at expressing dissatisfaction, advocating for change, or opposing specific policies. Whether sparked by social injustices, political decisions, or human rights violations, protests bring together individuals with a shared goal. Historic examples include the civil rights marches in the United States, anti-apartheid protests in South Africa, and movements like the Arab Spring. Political protests demonstrate the mobilization of individuals for a common cause, illustrating the impact of collective behavior on influencing political discourse and societal change.

4.3. Riots

Riots are characterized by sudden and violent outbursts involving large groups of people. These actions often arise in response to perceived injustices, social tensions, or political unrest. Riots can result in property damage, looting, and confrontations with law enforcement.

Historically, riots have occurred in various contexts, such as the urban riots in the United States during the 1960s, the Paris riots in 1968, and the London riots in 2011. Riots highlight the potential for collective behavior to express dissent and frustration, often in ways that deviate from typical social norms.

4.4. Fashion Trends

The rapid and widespread adoption of certain clothing styles or consumer products exemplifies collective behavior in the realm of fashion. Whether sparked by celebrity endorsements, cultural influences, or social media trends, fashion trends illustrate how individuals within a society can collectively embrace and promote specific styles.

Fashion trends are often characterized by their transience, with preferences shifting rapidly. The "hipster" subculture, for example, emerged as a collective movement embracing non-mainstream and eclectic styles, reflecting a shared identity among its members.

4.5. Panic in Emergencies

During emergencies, collective behavior can manifest as panic, with individuals responding in uncoordinated and often irrational ways. Instances of stampedes, evacuations, or responses to natural disasters demonstrate how the perception of a threat can lead to impulsive and collective reactions. The Hillsborough disaster in 1989, where a human crush occurred during a football match in England, is an example of how panic in emergencies can result in tragic consequences. Understanding and managing collective behavior in emergency situations is crucial for ensuring public safety ^{[1][2][3][4][5][6]}.