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Ramezani, G.; Stiharu, I.; Van De Ven, T.G.M.; Nerguizian, V. Advantages of 2D Materials and Cellulose in Biosensors. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/53403 (accessed on 11 May 2024).
Ramezani G, Stiharu I, Van De Ven TGM, Nerguizian V. Advantages of 2D Materials and Cellulose in Biosensors. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/53403. Accessed May 11, 2024.
Ramezani, Ghazaleh, Ion Stiharu, Theo G. M. Van De Ven, Vahe Nerguizian. "Advantages of 2D Materials and Cellulose in Biosensors" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/53403 (accessed May 11, 2024).
Ramezani, G., Stiharu, I., Van De Ven, T.G.M., & Nerguizian, V. (2024, January 04). Advantages of 2D Materials and Cellulose in Biosensors. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/53403
Ramezani, Ghazaleh, et al. "Advantages of 2D Materials and Cellulose in Biosensors." Encyclopedia. Web. 04 January, 2024.
Advantages of 2D Materials and Cellulose in Biosensors
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/mi15010082
The use of 2D materials in biosensor applications provides several advantages, including excellent mechanical, optical, and electrical properties. These properties are essential for the development of wearable biosensors that enable real-time monitoring of human health information and accurate measurement of vital signs. Integrating 2D materials into wearable biosensors has expanded opportunities for early detection of life-threatening diseases and continuous health tracking. In addition to 2D materials, cellulose-based biosensors also offer significant benefits. They are cost-effective, highly sensitive, and compatible with portable sensing devices used in biomedical applications. One major advancement in this field is the functionalization of cellulose papers with antibodies, nucleic acids, and nanomaterials in PBBs (paper-based bioassays) and μPADs (microfluidic paper-slip devices). Hence, the application of 2D materials and cellulose in medical diagnostics and biosensors has shown great potential. These materials have unique properties that make them suitable for various applications, including disease detection, real-time monitoring, and point-of-care diagnostics.
biosensor technologies two-dimensional (2D) materials nanocellulose

1. Medical and Diagnostic Applications

Glucose monitoring is essential for managing health conditions such as diabetes. Recent advancements in the construction of glucose-monitoring biosensors have focused on utilizing 2D materials and cellulose [1]. However, further research is needed to enhance their performance and explore their potential in clinical practice.
The use of 2D materials has proven beneficial in glucose sensing applications, resulting in improved sensor properties including stability, large surface area, and affordability [2].
Cellulose has been utilized in the development of wearable, self-powered glucose biosensors. A flexible biosensor was created using cellulose fibers coated with multi-wall carbon nanotubes and reduced graphene oxides, resulting in a porous electrode with excellent flexibility, conductivity, and electroactive surface area for urine glucose detection [1].
In a recent study, researchers investigated the potential of combining reduced graphene oxide (rGO) with gold nanoparticles in cellulose-nanofiber matrices to create a transducer layer for an environmentally friendly and flexible glucose sensor [3].
Furthermore, metal-organic frameworks such as 2D isomorphic Co/Ni-Metal-Organic Frameworks have demonstrated promise as materials for detecting glucose. These MOFs exhibit higher sensitivity, a wider linear range, and lower detection limits compared to other MOF-based glucose sensors.
Biosensors for DNA detection are crucial in genetic testing and disease diagnosis, utilizing the high surface area of nanocellulose and the electrical conductivity of 2D materials like molybdenum disulfide [2]. A recent study showed that such biosensors achieved a sequencing error rate below 0.1% and improved sequencing speed, enhancing the precision and reliability of DNA sequencing [4].
Graphene-like 2D materials and cellulose were utilized to develop biosensors for DNA detection. One study investigated the interaction of a two-dimensional metal oxide with single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) as a potential method for detecting viral infections [5]. Spectroscopic measurements confirmed strong interactions between ssDNA and the metal oxide, suggesting its efficacy in detecting viral infections. Another study focused on an electrochemical biosensor using BiSbTeSe2, an intrinsic topological insulator, which demonstrated high sensitivity in detecting target DNA with a low detection limit of 1.07 × 10−15 M [6].
The potential of 2D materials and cellulose in biosensors is demonstrated by examples such as the development of a photoelectrochemical aptasensor for detecting SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein using a two-dimensional (2D) metal-organic framework and the synthesis of TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanocrystal-capped gold nanoparticles for colorimetric detection of unamplified pathogenic DNA oligomers. These applications show their efficacy in detecting viral infections, HIV gene determination, and SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein [6][7].
Advanced biosensors incorporating 2D materials and nanocellulose have indeed shown promise in managing cardiovascular diseases by detecting and quantifying cholesterol. These biosensors demonstrate high sensitivity and accuracy, with a notable study achieving a detection limit of 0.1 mg/dL and a response time under 5 min [8]. The innovative design utilizes graphene oxide as a 2D material to enhance performance in clinical applications. Furthermore, cellulose-based biosensors have been successfully employed for monitoring various biomolecules, including glucose, urea, cells, amino acids, proteins, lactate, and hydroquinone [7].
However, while these advancements are promising, there are still areas that require further research and development. For instance, while 2D materials like graphene and MoS2 have been widely used in biosensors, there is a need to explore other 2D materials to discover novel properties that may contribute to the construction of high-performance electrochemical biosensors [9].
A critical factor in the future of electrochemical biosensing is the creation of highly sensitive biosensors through affordable and simple fabrication processes. These sensors must offer excellent sensitivity, selectivity, reliability, and stability. Cellulose-based biosensors have shown promise but may require additional chemical treatments due to their hydrophilic nature being incompatible with certain molecular sensors [10]. Moreover, there is a need for advancements in miniaturizing cholesterol and dopamine biosensors for lab-on-chip devices to overcome existing technical limitations and enable convenient use by patients at home [5].
In conclusion, while advanced biosensors incorporating 2D materials have shown significant promise in managing cardiovascular diseases, there are still challenges to be addressed and potential directions for future research. These include exploring different 2D materials, enhancing fabrication procedures, addressing the hydrophilic nature of cellulose, and improving biosensor miniaturization.
Cellulose-based biosensors have also been developed specifically for glucose and urea detection. Their accurate readings enable effective management of conditions such as diabetes or kidney disease. These sensors employ immobilized enzymes on a cellulose substrate to generate an electrical signal proportional to the concentration of glucose or urea [7].
Cellulose-based biosensors have found applications in the detection of specific diseases by identifying cells and proteins associated with certain conditions. In cancer diagnostics, they can detect specific cancer-associated proteins or cancer cells, enabling early disease diagnosis and monitoring [7].
Furthermore, cellulose-based biosensors have shown usefulness in pathogen detection for diagnosing infectious diseases. By detecting specific biomarkers associated with pathogens, these biosensors facilitate rapid and accurate diagnoses [11].

2. Environmental Monitoring

Water quality analysis: Graphene-based biosensors offer a potential solution for real-time environmental monitoring and pollution control by detecting trace amounts of heavy metals in water sources. Graphene and other 2D materials have been studied for their potential in analyzing and treating water quality. Graphene, especially graphene nanoflakes, has been used to create hydrogels for biosensors, showing promise as a material for water quality analysis. Furthermore, graphene microfiber membranes have been developed to remove nano-sized pollutants from water. The effectiveness of these membranes has been improved through surface functionalization that adjusts the interlayer separation in 2D membranes, enhancing their sieving capabilities. The combination of graphene oxide and cellulose acetate creates a unique adsorbent for efficient phosphate removal from water [12]. The presence of hydroxyl groups on the modified surface of cellulose acetate aids in the process [13]. Moreover, field-effect transistors made from 2D materials find application in water-related sensing. For instance, MoS2 nanosheets can be inkjet-printed into ultrathin semiconducting channels to fabricate FET-based water sensors. These sensors demonstrate high selectivity towards Pb2+ even at low concentrations (as low as 2 ppb), highlighting the potential use of 2D materials in assessing water quality.
Cellulose and 2D materials have displayed promising potential in water quality analysis, treatment, pollutant removal, biosensing, and monitoring. These filters can capture specific aquatic impurities for which antibodies can be produced and attached to the filters [14].
The utilization of two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance (2D NMR) techniques has allowed for the qualitative analysis of substructures of water-soluble organic compounds in atmospheric aerosols. This includes identifying spectral signatures associated with anhydrosugars present in cellulose. In terms of air quality monitoring, both 2D materials and cellulose offer high sensitivity for detection. A study demonstrated the use of a sensor composed of reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and graphene oxide on a cellulose-acetate composite membrane, which exhibited excellent sensitivity to minute changes in air quality. Furthermore, one notable advantage is their flexibility and adaptability for various applications. The same study emphasized that the film’s flexibility makes it suitable for wearable electronic devices or other applications that require flexible substrates.
Recent research has investigated the utilization of cellulose-based materials for analyzing indoor air quality. These innovative thermal insulation materials, obtained from recycled cellulosic and/or animal waste, were thoroughly examined [15].
Another study focused on developing a highly sensitive, flexible sensor. The sensor was created using an electro-spun composite membrane with abundant mesopores. This sensor exhibited exceptional sensitivity at low strains, making it ideal for potential use in wearable electronic devices.
In a separate investigation, researchers studied the effectiveness of composite membranes containing a 2D material and carbon nanotubes in solar steam generation and desalination processes. These composite membranes demonstrated self-floating capabilities on the air-water interface and minimized the accumulation of salt during de-salination due to their hydrophobic nature [16].
The application of 2D materials and cellulose In air quality monitoring exhibits great potential due to their flexibility and sensitivity. Recent studies have demonstrated their versatility and innovative possibilities in various fields, including thermal insulation and wearable electronic devices [17]. The application of 2D materials and cellulose in various fields, including thermal insulation, wearable electronic devices, and air quality monitoring, indeed exhibits great potential due to their flexibility and sensitivity. However, several challenges need to be addressed to fully realize their potential.
A major hurdle in developing wearable electronic devices using 2D materials and cellulose is finding the right balance between mechanical stretchability and electronic performance. For example, stretchable electronics, which are crucial for wearable devices, require substrates that can withstand stretching while maintaining their electronic functionality. PDMS is commonly used due to its ease of fabrication and low cost; however, enhancing its mechanical stretchability without compromising electronic performance remains a significant challenge [18].
The fabrication methods also present considerable challenges. Modern electronic devices are designed for 2D planar substrates, which are generally ill-suited for the intricate 3D structures of textiles. Consequently, there is an urgent need to develop fabrication techniques specifically tailored for e-textiles to advance wearable electronics [19].
The development of efficient, flexible, and scalable energy storage solutions remains a significant challenge for powering wearable electronic textiles. Additionally, technical breakthroughs are needed for manufacturing state-of-the-art 2D layered nanomaterial-supported flexible/stretchable sensors and power devices, which are crucial to the development of wearable biomedical sensors and power devices [20]. Lastly, strain engineering presents opportunities and challenges for creating flexible nanoelectronics and optoelectronic devices. Most of these devices utilize chemical vapor deposition or mechanical exfoliation of ultrathin 2D TMD materials, which may limit their application in wearable and implantable devices with higher train tolerance [21].
In summary, while 2D materials offer promising opportunities in various applications, there are significant challenges related to mechanical stretchability, electronic performance, fabrication methods, energy storage, and strain engineering that need to be addressed to advance this field.

3. Food Safety

Pathogen Detection in Food Products: One approach involves the use of enzyme-based paper biosensors for monitoring food freshness and predicting spoilage. For instance, a biosensor has been developed to measure the release of hypoxanthine, an indicator of meat and fish degradation. This is accomplished through enzymatic conversion facilitated by XOD within a sol-gel biohybrid on paper that retains the reaction products [22].
The unique optical properties of 2D materials like graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides enhance biomolecule detection in optical biosensors. These materials can be modified to improve sensitivity and detection limits and are commonly used alongside techniques such as surface plasmon resonance, fluorescence resonance energy transfer, and evanescent waves for detecting biomolecules. Nanomaterials like carbon nanotubes, magnetic nanoparticles, gold nanoparticles, dendrimers, graphene nanomaterials, and quantum dots are widely used in biosensors due to their unique properties. One application is the use of fiber-optic surface plasmon resonance sensors based on 2D materials for detecting different types of cells by measuring peak power loss changes [23].
Intelligent packaging technology is emerging to directly monitor food quality, eliminating the need for complex processes. This can be leveraged to detect microorganisms that cause foodborne illnesses visible on the food package itself [24].
Achieving high-quality sensing performance, including sensitivity and stability, relies heavily on maintaining stable biosensor interfaces. To improve interface properties, nanomaterials like chitosan and cellulose are often combined with polymers [25].
In order to detect pathogens in food products, researchers are employing a combination of 2D materials and cellulose-based biosensors. By integrating different materials, methods, and technologies with their respective advantages and challenges, this approach aims to enhance the sensitivity and stability of these biosensors.

4. Agricultural Applications

Soil Health Monitoring: Incorporating nanocellulose and 2D materials into biosensors allows for monitoring soil nutrients and pH levels to support sustainable farming practices. The use of these materials in sensor technology has been explored in various contexts, such as health monitoring and environmental sensing, but there is limited documentation on their specific application for soil health monitoring [26].

5. Health Monitoring

Cellulose-based sensors have been developed for health monitoring purposes. A plantar wearable pressure sensor utilizing hybrid lead zirconate-titanate/microfibrillated cellulose piezoelectric composite films has been proposed for measuring plantar pressure. Similarly, a high-performance humidity sensor based on GO/ZnO/plant cellulose film has been developed for respiratory monitoring [27][28].
The utilization of 2D materials in health monitoring wearable devices is another area where they have found applications. Carbon black and MoS2, as 1D and 2D nanomaterials, respectively, have been extensively studied as core sensing components for flexible strain sensors that are used to monitor the vital signs of patients [29][30]. Furthermore, 2D materials are being employed in enzymatic and nonenzymatic glucose sensing applications. Additionally, a GaSe-based fiber optic sensor has been specifically designed for lactate sensing in human sweat as an indicator of a potential heart attack [31].
Regarding soil health monitoring sensors, the search results provided limited evidence on the specific utilization of 2D materials and cellulose. Although there is a wireless subsoil health sensor developed for detecting volumetric water content, it does not make use of these materials. Further research is required to explore their potential in soil health monitoring applications.
Wearable health devices offer continuous health monitoring through the integration of flexible and biocompatible biosensors. These biosensors, composed of 2D materials and cellulose derivatives, can track vital health parameters such as heart rate and blood oxygen levels in real-time [32].
Graphene and other 2D materials have seen extensive use in developing wearable biosensors, which can be integrated into various wearable platforms like wristbands, headbands, and smart garments. These materials offer exceptional mechanical, optical, and electrical properties that make them ideal for such applications [33]. Additionally, certain advancements have been made in utilizing cellulose-a biomass material, in the fabrication of wearable biosensor devices [34]. Most notably, nanocellulose’s high specific surface area, biodegradability, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability are key factors behind these developments. For instance, a self-powered glucose biosensor was created from a flexible textile matrix made of cellulose fibers [35]. The sensor featured a porous three-dimensional electrode with excellent flexibility, surface conductivity, and electroactive surface area achieved by coating multi-wall carbon nanotubes and reduced graphene oxides onto the cellulosic textile matrix [36].
Wearable biosensors made from 2D materials and cellulose have gained attention in health monitoring for providing real-time data on vital signs. They are utilized in glucose monitoring, biomarker detection, and remote healthcare monitoring. These biosensors provide a versatile approach to personalized healthcare delivery with their design, fabrication, performance, sensitivity, and various health monitoring applications [37]. These materials offer flexibility, wearability, and responsiveness to external stimuli, which makes them well-suited for wearable health monitoring applications [38]. For example, a smart fabric based on MXene can be created by depositing Ti3C2Tx nanosheets onto cellulose fiber non-woven fabric. This fabric has a sensitive and reversible response to humidity, making it suitable for wearable respiration monitoring applications. It also has the potential to be used as a low-voltage thermotherapy platform due to its fast and stable electro-thermal response [39][40]. Furthermore, cellulose nanofibrils and Ti3C2 MXene can be combined through 3D printing to create smart fibers and textiles with responsiveness to various external stimuli. These materials have shown potential as strain sensors [31].
In addition, a plant-based substrate called “sporosubstrate” has been developed using natural pollen that is non-allergenic. This substrate allows for the creation of flexible shapes with customizable properties and performance characteristics. It finds application in electronic healthcare devices and wearable wireless heating systems [41][42].
Flexible and lightweight biosensors have been developed using 2D graphene oxide and Ti3C2 nanosheet-based supercapacitors. These sensors exhibit high sensitivity and a wide detection range and can be integrated into wearable monitoring systems for tracking physical status during various activities. The use of a cellulose-blend cloth substrate further enhances the versatility of these biosensors in wearable health applications [43].

6. Integration of 2D Materials and Nanocellulose in Biosensor Technologies

Integrating 2D materials with cellulose in biosensors enhances their properties, such as sensitivity, stability, and flexibility. Graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides like MoS2 and WS2 have unique physical properties that improve the performance of biosensors. The electrical conductivity and mechanical strength of graphene enhance sensitivity and specificity, while the layered structure of transition metal dichalcogenides provides precise electrical characteristics for biosensor applications [44].
Combining 2D materials with nanocellulose improves biosensor performance by leveraging the high surface area of nanocellulose and the electrical properties offered by 2D materials. This combination results in highly sensitive sensors. Additionally, incorporating cellulose into 2D materials enhances the mechanical strength, biocompatibility, and environmental stability of biosensors [45]. The integration of graphene and molybdenum disulfide with cellulose creates flexible and stretchable electronic devices suitable for wearable electronics and sensors. The biocompatibility of nanocellulose contributes positively to biosensor functionality, while its mechanical strength enhances stability [46].
Integrating cellulose with 2D materials in biosensors enhances device strength, biocompatibility, and environmental stability. This integration is driving research opportunities and expanding the applications in this rapidly advancing field.
The most common properties tested in biosensors include:
  • Electrical properties: These materials are significant contributors to the performance of biosensors. Graphene, with its high electrical conductivity achieved through wet-chemical methods, is essential for device performance. Similarly, materials like MoS2 and WS2 possess exceptional electrical properties due to their strong covalent and van der Waals interactions. Notably, the covalent functionalization of these atomic-thin materials with a large surface-to-volume ratio is critical to optimizing biosensor functionality [47]. Graphene’s high electrical conductivity, achievable through wet-chemical methods, is integral to device performance. MoS2 and WS2, with their strong covalent and van der Waals interactions, exhibit notable electrical properties. The covalent functionalization of these materials is vital due to their atomic thinness and large surface-to-volume ratio [48].
  • Mechanical properties: Methods such as mechanical exfoliation and chemical vapor deposition yield 2D materials with distinct mechanical characteristics, which play a crucial role in biosensing applications. Techniques like mechanical exfoliation and chemical vapor deposition enable the production of 2D materials with unique mechanical attributes for biosensor applications, thanks to their atomic thinness and extensive surface area [49].
  • Chemical properties: To enhance the functionality of biosensors, it is important to consider the chemical properties of nanocellulose. Nanocellulose contains hydroxyl groups that can be chemically modified, allowing for the attachment of sensing molecules or nanoparticles [50].
  • Optical properties: The optical properties of 2D materials such as graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides improve biomolecule detection in optical biosensors. These materials can be modified to enhance sensitivity and detection limits [51].
  • Thermal properties: In addition to other properties, certain biosensors also measure thermal conductivity. For instance, a study examined the heat transfer capabilities of polypyrrole/carbon black composite-coated cellulose (cotton) yarn. The objective was to gain insights into the behavior and performance of these materials in terms of their ability to conduct heat [52].
  • Sensitivity and specificity: The use of graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides in biosensors has significantly improved their sensitivity and specificity. These materials have a large surface-to-volume ratio, allowing for better interaction with analytes and enhanced detection capabilities [53]. Biosensors employing 2D materials and cellulose have shown increased sensitivity and specificity in applications such as early cancer diagnosis, biomarker detection, glucose monitoring, and DNA detection. These materials demonstrate exceptional electrical properties and high surface area, contributing to their enhanced performance [54].
  • Stability: The mechanical strength of nanocellulose significantly enhances the stability and durability of biosensors. This improvement is primarily due to several key properties of nanocellulose:
    • High Surface Area
    • These characteristics of nanocellulose facilitate greater enzyme immobilization in biosensors. This is crucial because it allows for higher protein loadings, which in turn improves the sensor’s response and stability [55].
    • High Young’s Modulus: This property indicates that nanocellulose is a stiff material. In the context of biosensors, a higher Young’s modulus translates to improved structural integrity, making the biosensors less prone to deformation under stress [56].
    • Biodegradability and renewable nature: These environmentally friendly properties of nanocellulose make it an ideal material for sustainable biosensor development [57].
    • Tunable surface chemistry: The ability to modify the surface of nanocellulose allows for better integration with other materials in biosensors, potentially leading to enhanced performance and specificity [58].
    • Synergistic effects with other materials: When combined with other materials, like in the case of rice starch-based edible films, nanocellulose not only enhances mechanical strength but also can impart other desirable properties to the composite material. This synergy can be leveraged in biosensors to create more robust and efficient devices [59].
In summary, the incorporation of nanocellulose into biosensors offers a multitude of benefits, primarily due to its strong mechanical properties, high surface area, and customizable nature. These characteristics contribute to the development of more stable, durable, and potentially more sensitive biosensing devices.
8.
Flexibility: Combining the unique properties of nanocellulose with flexible and durable 2D materials makes them an ideal choice for developing wearable biosensors suitable for real-time health monitoring [60].
9.
Cost-effectiveness: Portable paper-based biosensors and microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (μPADs) are cellulose-based biosensors that offer high sensitivity and affordability. These innovative devices provide a viable alternative to conventional advanced analytical instruments [61].
10.
Environmental sustainability: By utilizing nanocellulose from renewable sources, the environmental sustainability of biosensors can be emphasized while also highlighting their potential for being eco-friendly as products and technologies [62].
In cellulose nano-whisker/graphene nano-platelet composite films, the sensing capabilities of a biosensor depend on its design and functionalization [63]. Biosensors can be designed to detect substances such as glucose, cholesterol, lactate, DNA, RNA, proteins, and various types of cells through a reaction with a specific enzyme or molecule that is attached to the sensor, causing a detectable change in the sensor’s properties [64].
Graphene and its hybrid materials are currently utilized in the development of high-performance electrochemical biosensors. They serve as advanced electrodes due to their large accessible surface area, electrical conductivity, and capacity for immobilizing enzymes [65]. For example, a glucose biosensor can be functionalized with glucose oxidase, an enzyme that reacts with glucose to produce hydrogen peroxide and gluconolactone. The hydrogen peroxide can then be detected electrochemically. Similarly, a DNA biosensor might be functionalized with a specific sequence of DNA that binds to the target DNA sequence, which causes a detectable change in the sensor’s properties [66].
Composite materials, such as the ones mentioned, have been extensively researched in various fields, including wearable electronics, energy storage, sensing devices, and environmental monitoring. Wearable biosensors made from 2D materials and cellulose have demonstrated potential in health monitoring by collecting real-time data on vital signs, glucose levels, biomarker detection, and remote healthcare monitoring [67].

7. Biosensor Functionality

The electrical and mechanical properties of these advanced materials significantly contribute to biosensor functionality. For instance, in plasmonic biosensing and photoelectrochemical (PEC) biosensing, the sensitivity of biosensors is notably enhanced by 2D nanomaterials [68].

8. Comparison with Other Technologies

Biosensors utilizing 2D materials and cellulose offer numerous advantages compared to traditional biosensors and other advanced analytical instruments. These include unique electrical and optical properties, high specific surface area, excellent mechanical properties, good thermal and chemical stability, high catalytic activities, facile synthesis process, and large surface areas for toxin detection improvement with increased selectivity and sensitivity due to their outstanding electrical signal amplification capabilities [69].
The performance of these biosensors can vary in terms of sensitivity, specificity, and stability compared to traditional biosensors and other advanced analytical instruments. Further research is needed to optimize their performance and address any associated challenges with their use.

9. Theoretical Foundations

The theoretical foundations related to the integration of 2D materials with cellulose in biosensors and other applications primarily revolve around the principles of quantum mechanics, band structure engineering, and strain engineering.
  • Band structure engineering: Band theory, an approximation to the quantum state of solids, has been instrumental in the development of modern integrated solid-state electronics. The emerging 2D layered materials, with their unique electrical, magnetic, optical, and structural properties, provide a platform to implement quantum-engineered devices. These materials allow for the exploration of advanced quantum mechanical effects, such as band-to-band tunneling, spin–orbit coupling, spin–valley locking, and quantum entanglement, which are crucial for energy-efficient electronics and optoelectronics [70]. Band structure engineering is a key theoretical foundation for manipulating the electronic properties of 2D materials. This involves modifying the energy bands of these materials to control their electronic and optical properties. Techniques for band structure engineering include localized chemical doping, dual gating, liquid gating, thickness modulation, and constructing heterojunctions [71].
  • Strain engineering: Strain engineering is a promising approach to tuning the electrical, electrochemical, magnetic, and optical properties of 2D materials. This involves applying mechanical strain to these materials to alter their properties, a technique that has the potential for high-performance 2D-material-based devices. Strain engineering can fundamentally change the electronic and optoelectronic properties of 2D materials, leading to novel functional device applications [72][73].
These theoretical foundations provide the basis for understanding and manipulating the properties of 2D materials when integrated with cellulose, thereby enhancing their performance in various applications, including biosensors.
The incorporation of 2D materials into biosensor technology significantly enhances their performance by leveraging various physical properties at the nanoscale. Specific examples include graphene and molybdenum disulfide, which exhibit exceptional physical, mechanical, and optical characteristics that render them ideal for nanoelectronic devices and sensors [74]. These materials can be combined with cellulose-based compounds to form blends with enhanced attributes for applications in energy storage, optoelectronics, and biological control. By integrating nano-sized substances into Na-CMC blends through strain engineering techniques, it becomes possible to manipulate the band structure of 2D materials for continuous tuning purposes [75][76]. Consequently, this integration facilitates the development of high-performance biosensors characterized by improved sensitivity, selectivity, and stability.
High surface-to-volume ratios: The large surface-to-volume ratio of 2D materials offers significant advantages in various applications, including adsorption, sensing, and catalysis. These materials have shown potential as effective adsorbents for environmental decontamination due to their high surface area, specific binding capability, and chemical stability [77].
Combining 2D materials with cellulose can further enhance their properties. For example, graphene oxide is used to strengthen cellulose nanofibrils in the production of CNF-GO nanocomposite films, resulting in improved organization of the CNF matrix. Additionally, MXene-cellulose nanofiber composites have been developed for applications such as electromagnetic interference shielding materials [78].
The high surface-to-volume ratio of cellulose-based 2D materials contributes to their mechanical properties. Mistletoe viscin, a natural adhesive made up of hierarchically organized cellulose microfibrils, can be transformed into stiff and sticky fibers, showcasing its potential for bioinspired and biomedical uses [79][80].
Additionally, 2D materials such as MoS2 and WS2 exhibit enhanced electrical properties due to their high surface-to-volume ratio. These materials can replace silicon in transistors because they can drive high currents with low leakage currents and possess nonvolatile switching characteristics [81]. Therefore, integrating cellulose with 2D materials expands their applications in environmental decontamination, sensing, catalysis, and electronics.

10. Electrical Conductivity and Electron Mobility

The integration of cellulose with 2D materials has demonstrated promising potential for improving electrical conductivity and electron mobility across various applications, including wearable electronics, energy storage, and sensing devices. For example, the use of cellulose-based ion gels in fabricating aerosol-jet-printed electrolyte-gated indium oxide thin-film transistors resulted in devices with electron densities surpassing 7 × 1014 cm−2 and mobilities exceeding 11 cm2 V−1 s−1 [82]. Furthermore, stretchable thermal sensors for wearable electronics were developed using polypyrrole-coated threads that maintained consistent electrical conductivity even under tensile strains above 100% [83]. These instances emphasize the advantageous prospects of combining cellulose with 2D materials.
Mechanical properties: Integration of 2D materials with cellulose has been found to enhance the stability and durability of biosensors, offering the potential for functionalization and integration with various biomolecules. The mechanical properties of cellulose integrated with specific 2D materials are influenced by the fabrication process and modifications applied [84]. Research has shown that graphene and molybdenum disulfide can be incorporated into cellulose to create flexible and stretchable electronic devices suitable for wearable electronics and sensors. For example, a flexible capacitor was fabricated using a few-layer MoS2 grown on aluminum foil as electrodes and cellulose paper as a dielectric material, demonstrating enhanced capacitance upon strain due to its piezoelectric property.
Various approaches have been used to study the tensile properties of all-cellulose composites. The assessment of tensile properties can be done using nominal stress and strain equations, considering factors such as force, cross-section area, displacement, and initial length [85].
A study demonstrated that modifying the surface properties of natural cellulose fibers through chemical methods improves the mechanical properties of graphene/cellulose conductive paper. The study found that the carboxyl content in cellulose had a significant impact on the mechanical properties of graphene/oxidized-cellulose conductive paper. When the carboxyl content was low, graphene/oxidized-cellulose conductive paper achieved an elastic modulus value of 1572 MPa, which was 27.4% higher compared to cellulose/graphene conductive paper [86][87].
Cellulose, a readily available and cost-effective natural material, offers impressive mechanical properties and structural stability. It has the potential to replace carbon fiber/epoxy composites with cellulose/epoxy composites that deliver excellent performance at an affordable price. Nanolization of cellulose is crucial for ensuring composite strength, while the formation of continuous macroscopic structures ensures high Young’s modulus in these composites [88].
In summary, the integration of 2D materials with cellulose presents promising prospects for various applications, particularly in flexible and wearable electronics. However, specific properties may vary depending on the choice of 2D materials used, fabrication processes employed, and modifications applied to cellulose.

11. Environmental and Economic Aspects

The environmental cost as well as the economic cost are factors of major influence when establishing the acceptance of technology. The environmental cost includes aspects such as toxicity of the extraction process, fabrication, usage, and disposal. Cellulose provides great benefits in all the above categories. Below, some of the environmental and economic-related aspects are discussed.

12. Environmental Aspects

2D materials, including graphene and other 2D metal-organic frameworks, can be synthesized in a cost-effective and environmentally friendly manner. These materials have great potential for use in advanced electrical devices and integrated circuits. Cellulose, an abundant renewable resource on earth, serves as the foundation for these 2D materials. It possesses excellent properties such as biocompatibility, environmental friendliness, and chemical stability [89].
In the field of all-solid-state flexible supercapacitors, cellulose-based hybrid 2D material aerogels have been utilized. These aerogels are created through a supercritical CO2 drying process using cellulose nanofibers to effectively disperse other 2D materials like molybdenum disulfide and reduced graphene oxide [90].
Additionally, cellulose has found utility in environmental applications such as industrial water decontamination. Its efficacy and affordability make it a desirable choice for this purpose. Selective oxidation of cellulose has been employed to produce novel high-performance materials with diverse applications in fields including bio-medical engineering, healthcare, energy storage, barriers, sensing technologies, and food packaging [91].

13. Economic Aspects

Combining 2D materials with cellulose provides notable economic advantages. This integration enables the development of self-powered sensors for various applications, such as biomedicine, environmental detection, human motion monitoring, energy harvesting, and smart wearable devices. Additionally, combining cellulose with MXene results in the cost-effective manufacturing of green and highly efficient electromagnetic interference shielding materials. Furthermore, it allows for the production of all-solid-state flexible supercapacitors using cellulose-based hybrid 2D material aerogels [90][91][92].
To conclude, integrating 2D materials into cellulose offers significant environmental and economic benefits. This makes it a highly promising field for future research and development efforts.

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Subjects: Nanoscience & Nanotechnology
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Ghazaleh Ramezani
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Ion Stiharu
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Theo G. M. van de Ven
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Vahe Nerguizian
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