Hemp-Derived CBD Used in Food and Food Supplements

Version	Summary	Created by	Modification	Content Size	Created at	Operation
1		Lubomir Lapcik	--	3439	2023-12-29 11:19:00	\|
2	format	Jason Zhu	-38 word(s)	3401	2024-01-02 04:32:15	\|

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/molecules28248047

Cannabis sativa L., a plant historically utilized for textile fibers, oil, and animal feed, is progressively being recognized as a potential food source.

hemp CBD food products cannabinoids

1. Cannabis Legislation

In many countries, the words “hemp” and “cannabis” are associated with “illegal drugs”, and hemp products stay in a “grey zone”, of which the legality is not clearly defined. However, the regulations of the products considerably vary depending on the country.

In the USA, the 2018 Farm Bill removed industrial hemp with THC < 0.3% from the definition of marijuana, and in the same year (2018), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first medicine containing CBD for the treatment of seizures associated with two rare and severe forms of epilepsy, Lennox–Gastaut syndrome and Dravet syndrome. Some cannabis food products (e.g., tea, coffee, and chocolate) are already on the markets of some USA states after the states deregulated CBD, although it is still not approved at the federal level. In Canada, cannabis is nationally legalized, but phytocannabinoids, including CBD, are on the Prescription Drug List and cannot be legally sold in self-care natural health products and cosmetics. In China, there has been a long cultivation tradition of hemp; however, recent national regulations forbid any use of CBD in food and cosmetic products. These Chinese regulations significantly limit the development of the hemp industry on a large scale ^[1].

Within the Asian market, the landscape governing CBD-infused foods and dietary supplements is circumscribed by specific regulatory frameworks. Regulatory authorities maintain exhaustive positive or negative lists delineating permissible substances for inclusion in food products or for non-pharmaceutical applications. In the Japanese jurisdiction, cannabis-treated seeds find inclusion on the “non-drug list“. Notably, CBD oil, derived from the mature stem and seed of the cannabis plant, assumes a non-cannabis classification. This categorical distinction facilitates the importation of CBD products, specifically THC-free CBD oil, in alignment with guidelines promulgated by the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour, and Welfare in 1999. Furthermore, the importation of chemically synthesized CBD is admissible, contingent upon the importer’s capacity to substantiate its non-classification as cannabis.

In South Korea, the inclusion of hemp seeds as a food ingredient is permissible, contingent upon the complete removal of shells, encompassing bracts and outer epidermis. Venturing into Southeast Asia, Thailand has recently instituted regulations designed to foster the cultivation of hemp as an economically viable crop. This regulatory framework expressly authorizes the incorporation of CBD oil, exclusively sourced from hemp seeds, in foods and dietary supplements. It delineates explicit conditions governing the utilization of hemp or Cannabis sativa (C. sativa) seeds, hemp seed oil, and hemp seed protein across diverse food categories, inclusive of dietary supplements. Additionally, the regulations establish stringent maximum limits for THC and CBD content, thereby ensuring the safety and regulatory compliance of these products ^[2].

In China, a historical hemp cultivation tradition prevails. The Chinese regulatory authority officially acknowledged cannabis as a botanical constituent suitable for both alimentary and medicinal applications in the inaugural iteration of the “List of Botanical Ingredients Recognized for Food and Medicinal Use” released in 2002. However, antecedent to future limitations across various product categories, four cannabis-related raw materials, including CBD, were preemptively included in the inventories of proscribed ingredients and raw materials for cosmetic formulations. Presently, national regulations in China prohibit the inclusion of CBD in both food and cosmetic products, imposing substantial constraints on the expansive development of the hemp industry ^[2].

Within Latin America, regulatory frameworks addressing the industrial and therapeutic applications of hemp or cannabis exist. Notably, Uruguay and Ecuador have enacted distinct regulations pertaining to the utilization of hemp seed protein and CBD in food products. In Uruguay, Decree No. 19/2020 amended the National Bromatological Regulation, permitting the incorporation of hemp seed protein derived from industrial hemp variety C. sativa in food items. The regulation stipulates a maximum THC concentration of 10 mg/kg for the powdered ingredient obtained through the processing of residual products from oil extraction. Conversely, Ecuador permits the use of all non-psychoactive cannabis parts or their derivatives in processed foods and food supplements, provided the THC concentration in the final product remains below 0.3%. Non-psychoactive cannabis or hemp, encompassing oils, resins, tinctures, crude extracts, or other technological innovations derived from non-psychoactive plants with a THC content below 1%, is defined as raw materials for the production of finished products ^[2].

In Australia and New Zealand, ministerial approval in 2017 resulted in an amendment to the Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code, enabling the commercialization of low-THC hemp seeds (C. sativa) for human consumption as food items or ingredients. The stipulation mandates that the only cannabinoids present in or on the seeds must occur naturally. Subsequent to this modification, amendments to various food and drug regulations were endorsed, taking effect in November 2018. These revised regulations delineate explicit conditions for the usage of hemp seeds, encompassing extracts, oils, and beverages, with prescribed maximum limits for THC and CBD content ^[2].

In the European Union (EU), the seeds of cannabis plants may be used for food purposes; the other parts of the plant and their extracts are designated as “novel foods” in accordance with EU Regulation 2015/2283 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2015. This regulation defines the term as a food that has not been traditionally consumed in the EU before 15 May 1997. This group includes foods with a novel or modified molecular structure, foods that have been derived from products produced by microorganisms, fungi, or seaweed, and substances extracted from them. Hence, extracts of seeds of Cannabis sativa L. var. sativa and products thereof containing cannabinoids are considered “novel foods” ^[3]. In 2019, CBD was added to the category of “novel foods” and subjected to the authorization by food safety authorities which must be obtained before the launch to the EU market. Nonetheless, after the manufacturers had applied for this authorization, the process was temporarily suspended and some EU states began to withdraw the CBD products from the market, although others still allowed their sale. At present, CBD falls under different regulations depending on the nature of the products and their composition ^[4].

In Czechia (EU), CBD products are legal as cannabidiol is not classified as a narcotic or psychoactive substance. A clear indicator of legality is therefore primarily the THC content. The basic distinction between technical and “regular” cannabis is regulated by Government Regulation 463/2013 Coll. on the lists of addictive substances. According to it, a registered variety in which the psychoactive THC content does not exceed 1% of the dry weight of the plant can be considered technical cannabis. If the dry weight of cannabis exceeds this 1% limit, it is an addictive substance, the possession, use, or sale of which is illegal. According to Act 167/1998 Coll. on the lists of addictive substances, technical cannabis can be freely purchased, stored, and further processed ^[5].

In Switzerland, national legislation permits the inclusion of CBD in alimentary items and dietary supplements. Food products encompassing cannabinoids, such as CBD, extracts of Cannabis sativa (C. sativa), and derivatives with cannabinoids (e.g., hemp seed oil with added CBD, dietary supplements with CBD), fall under the classification of novel foods. Consequently, they necessitate licensing from Swiss authorities or approval from the European Commission prior to market introduction. Conversely, products derived from C. sativa or plant parts established as safe and significantly consumed in the EU before 15 May 1997 are exempt from novel food categorization in Switzerland. This exemption notably applies to hemp seeds, hemp seed oil, hemp seed flour, and defatted hemp seeds. Additionally, herbal tea derived from cannabis plant leaves in Switzerland is not considered a novel food item. Its use for flavoring food products is exempt from licensing requirements, provided it is employed as an aqueous infusion and not in concentrated or syrup form. Swiss legislation further prescribes explicit labeling regulations for CBD and establishes permissible THC levels in food products ^[2].

In the UK, regulations governing the marketing of CBD-infused foods and dietary supplements are applicable in England, Wales, and Scotland. Oversight of these regulations is administered by the Food Standards Agency (FSA) for England and Wales and Food Standards Scotland (FSS) for Scotland. The FSA classifies CBD extracts under the UK novel food regulation, necessitating novel food applications for product approval from the CBD industry. In contrast to the EU, the FSA allows businesses to continue selling CBD products that were already on the market as of 13 February 2020, with the stipulation that these products remain safe, correctly labeled, free from THC or any other substance regulated under drug legislation, and associated with a novel foods application submitted before 31 March 2021, which was subsequently validated. Conversely, the FSS prohibits the sale of ingredients classified as novel food in the Scottish market until full authorization is granted. However, applications should be submitted to the FSA without the requirement for a separate application to the FSS ^[2].

The current regulatory landscape of CBD legislation poses a multifaceted challenge necessitating critical examination by pertinent reference sources. The divergence in regulations and criteria concerning acceptable plant parts for food ingredients, as well as maximum THC limits, introduces considerable uncertainty. The situation is further compounded by distinct interpretations and implementations of rules by national authorities regarding isolate, synthetic, and full-spectrum CBD. In this evolving regulatory milieu, it is imperative to address these challenges and strive for lucid and consistent interpretations of prevailing legislation, a task pertinent not only to researchers but also to companies necessitating informed adaptation of marketing strategies. Nevertheless, the absence of clear and consistent regulations may constitute a barrier to unequivocally presenting legislative aspects of cannabis products and their integration into the food industry.

On a global scale, prevailing regulations underscore the escalating acknowledgment of the nutritional and functional attributes of hemp. However, they simultaneously emphasize the necessity for regulatory oversight to safeguard the safety and quality of cannabis products. A judicious legislative policy can facilitate the cultivation and utilization of the cannabis plant across diverse sectors, including the food industry, medicine, recreation, and other domains of human activity. Nonetheless, the absence of robust regulations may engender the illicit misuse of psychoactive cannabinoids and their derivatives ^[2].

2. Conditions of Cannabis Compound Use and Storage

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in hemp seeds and products containing hemp. With the growing popularity of these products, the range of products in the retail network is naturally expanding, with the most popular products being those made from hemp flour or containing hemp seeds or oils. The benefits of using these raw materials include their nutritional value and potential medicinal properties. However, the amount of these raw materials that can be used is determined by the cannabinoid content of the final product, and the ∆9-THC content must not exceed the permitted limits ^[6]^[7]^[8]^[9].

Currently, there is competition between food manufacturers to produce the greatest number of cannabis products. Many variables affect the possibilities and limitations of the use of cannabinoids in the food industry. It is necessary to regulate the limits not only of THC but also of other cannabinoids in the food products and to characterize precisely the properties of single cannabinoids. The effects of these compounds, as known to date, suggest that they could serve as alternatives to some conventional medicines. This is considered a significant potential benefit. However, obstacles to the development of this type of food are misinformation and an unjustified amount of prejudice. But given a number of reports on the positive effects of cannabinoids, the fear of adding them to the food seems to be unfounded ^[10].

Cannabis in the food industry is a very difficult matter due to the variable cannabinoid contents in different plants. The concentration of individual cannabinoids in hemp oil depends mainly on the variety and the way the seeds are cleaned ^[11]. According to a study by Hazekamp and Fischedick ^[12], the concentration of cannabinoids in plants of the same species grown in different parts of the world has been shown to vary by more than 25%. This variability is a significant limitation as it can affect the consistency and safety of food products. To mitigate these differences, it may be possible to consider controlling varieties and cultivation methods to ensure greater homogeneity or to mix the extracts from specific plants in such a proportion as to obtain the necessary homogeneity.

Regulations governing the permitted levels of cannabinoids in food vary from country to country (as discussed in Section 4). In most cases, the restrictions mainly concern ∆9-THC but do not include ∆9-THCA, which is converted to ∆9-THC after heat treatment. The legal limits are usually given in mg/kg (ppm) of the final product ^[10]. In Europe, varieties of Cannabis sativa L. with a total content of ∆9-THC and ∆9-THCA in the flowering or fruiting parts of the plant from which the resin has not been removed not exceeding 0.2% of dry matter may be used for food production purposes ^[13]. The use of other parts of the plant can be dangerous as the cannabinoid content varies across the plant concerning variety and growing conditions ^[3].

2.1. Use of Cannabis Extracts and Emulsions

Hemp extracts are characterized by their resinous, oily structure and easy solubility in organic solvents, fats, and alcohols. The choice of the form in which the cannabinoids can be added to the final product is very important so that they dissolve easily and do not affect the final product. Extracts containing CBD are usually readily dissolved in edible oils such as coconut or olive oil; CBD absorption in the digestive tract is enhanced by its incorporation in high-fat food. Conversely, CBD oil–water emulsions are used in the production of tinctures, soft capsules, or beverages. The use of this type of emulsion requires the use of surfactants—emulsifiers which may include polysaccharides, proteins, or phospholipids—where the choice of a particular emulsifier depends on the type of emulsion, the composition of the oil, and, finally, the ionic strength of the aqueous extract. The production of solid products is quite difficult due to the oily nature of hemp extracts. This problem is solved by using excipients that form a lipid matrix, which then allows the controlled release of cannabinoids and prevents their degradation ^[14]^[15]^[16]^[17].

2.2. Storage Conditions of Cannabis Products

Given the lipid nature of cannabinoids, they are quite susceptible to oxidation, which poses a risk mainly to their storage stability. Another equally important issue for manufacturers is to maintain a homogeneous concentration in each batch of the product. Regular control of the water activity in the products and proper packaging are non-negotiable measures that improve the quality and shelf life of the products ^[18].

Knowledge of the changes that occur when hemp oil is stored under different conditions is very important when considering its possible application in the food industry. As noted by Rupasinghe et al. ^[19], hemp oil is characterized by its susceptibility to rancidity, which can be caused by heat and storage for a long time. Acid cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol acid, are found in the composition of hemp oil and are present in relatively high concentrations in the oil.

When raw materials are exposed to high temperatures, e.g., during drying or burning, the cannabinoid content changes. As a result of these processes, non-psychoactive carboxylic acids are converted to neutral cannabinoids by decarboxylation ^[20]^[21]^[22]. ∆9-THC, which is derived from ∆9-THCA, is converted to CBN as a result of decarboxylation due to the action of light and oxygen in oxidation processes ^[14]. The decarboxylation of these acids takes place only under the influence of temperature, and no enzymes are involved, i.e., the higher the temperature, the faster the decarboxylation ^[23].

3. Potential Applications of Cannabis in the Food Industry

The possible cannabis applications in the food industry are very diverse and full of potential in the upcoming years. With the growing awareness of the natural and health benefits of hemp, cannabis use in the food industry is expected to expand. Some of the potential applications include:

3.1. New Foods with CBD

New food products enriched with CBD may appear in the future. Including CBD in foods may offer consumers additional ways to obtain the health benefits of this cannabinoid. New foods containing CBD may be diverse and interesting to consumers. CBD can be incorporated into a wide range of food products. For example, hemp energy bars could be a popular way to obtain a quick energy boost while enjoying the potential health benefits of CBD. Moreover, there is hemp muesli enriched with hemp seeds and CBD, and the already well-known, but not widely available, CBD-infused hemp chocolates. In addition to the products mentioned above, the use of CBD as a raw material in the production of hemp drinks or baked goods suitable for people suffering from celiac disease could also be considered ^[24].

3.2. Hemp Protein and Food for Vegans

Hemp is a rich source of protein and essential fatty acids, making it an attractive alternative to traditional proteins for vegans and vegetarians. In the future, new hemp foods specifically for these groups of consumers could emerge. Thanks to the content of hemp, people with a vegan diet can be provided with foods with a diverse and rich nutritional composition.

Particularly, hemp seeds are an important source of proteins, fiber, and essential fatty acids such as omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. They can be eaten raw, added to salads, muesli, and smoothies, or included in baked goods. Their other potential use is to be considered as a raw material for protein isolation. One of the other foods with potentially greater use is hemp milk as an alternative to conventional milk drinks ^[25].

3.3. Innovations in Hemp-Processing Technologies

The future may bring innovations in hemp-processing technologies that will allow the creation of new and improved hemp foods with better texture, taste, and nutritional value. Continuous advancement and development of hemp-processing technology are key factors in optimizing the production of high-quality, efficient, and sustainable hemp products. The rapidly growing interest in cannabinoids and other valuable components of cannabis is driving the need for new approaches and techniques that include ^[24]:

(a): Nanotechnology: This technology allows the particle size of cannabinoids and other valuable substances to be reduced to the nanometer level. It can increase their bioavailability and improve absorption efficiency, which has the potential to increase the potency of cannabis products.
(b): Supercritical CO₂ extraction: It is a modern technique that allows the efficient and gentle extraction of cannabinoids, terpenes, and other valuable components from cannabis. This method allows the separation of cannabinoids with high purity and minimizes the use of solvents, making it a greener and safer alternative to traditional extraction methods.
(c): Fermentation: It may be a new way to extract valuable substances from cannabis, such as cannabinoids and enzymes. This method is more environmentally friendly and can reduce processing costs.
(d): Biotechnological methods: These methods can be used to optimize the production of specific cannabinoids and terpenes. Genetic modification of cannabis can lead to the development of varieties with higher levels of specific compounds and better resistance to pests.

Innovation in hemp-processing technology is an important factor in the development and diversification of the market for hemp products. With continued research and innovation, further improvements in processing technologies can be expected, leading to ever better and more efficient hemp products for various industries ^[24].

3.4. Functional Foods with Hemp

Functional foods with hemp are food products that offer not only nutritional value but also natural benefits for human health, due to the content of cannabinoids, terpenes, essential fatty acids, and other phytonutrients that contribute to the hemp’s functional properties. In recent years, interest in functional foods has increased and manufacturers are beginning to incorporate cannabis into a variety of functional food products to provide additional health benefits to consumers. Cannabinoids, in particular cannabidiol (CBD), are key components of cannabis with various pharmacological effects. Studies suggest that CBD has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anxiolytic, and neuroprotective properties. Incorporating CBD into functional foods may provide potential benefits for stress reduction and improved sleep and overall well-being ^[26]^[27].

Another possible use of cannabis in the production of functional foods is in combination with adaptogens. Adaptogens are herbal substances that help the body adapt better to stress and increase resilience. Combining cannabis with adaptogens such as ashwagandha or rhodiola can offer synergistic effects to reduce anxiety, increase resilience, and promote physical and mental well-being ^[28].

Finally, thanks to the nutrient-rich content of cannabis, functional foods containing it can be an important source of essential nutrients that are important for maintaining a healthy metabolism and overall well-being. Due to the combination of the high nutritional value of hemp and its phytonutrients, these foods can contribute to an overall balanced diet ^[29].

References

Chen, C.; Pan, Z. Cannabidiol and terpenes from hemp—Ingredients for future foods and processing technologies. J. Future Foods 2021, 1, 113–127.
Ereño, D.P. Global Regulatory Trends in CBD Use in Food and Food Supplements. Regulatory Affairs Professionals Society, 2021; pp. 1–10. Available online: https://www.raps.org/News-and-Articles/News-Articles/2021/6/Global-regulatory-trends-on-CBD-use-in-food-and-fo (accessed on 4 December 2023).
Ďuriš Nicholsonová, L. Availability and Conditions for CBD Sales on the EU Single Market. Priority Question for Written Answer P-000686/2021 to the Commission, Rule 138. European Parliament. 2021. Available online: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/P-9-2021-000686_EN.html (accessed on 2 October 2023).
Šustková, L. Konopí pro Léčebné Použití. State Institute for Drug Control. 2010. Available online: https://www.sukl.cz/konopi-pro-lecebne-pouziti (accessed on 18 August 2023).
Walch, S.; Lachenmeier, D. Analysis and toxicological evaluation of cannabinoids in hemp food products—A review. Electron. J. Environ. Agric. Food Chem. 2005, 4, 812–826.
Aizpurua-Olaizola, O.; Omar, J.; Navarro, P.; Olivares, M.; Etxebarria, N.; Usobiaga, A. Identification and quantification of cannabinoids in Cannabis sativa L. plants by high-performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2014, 406, 7549–7560.
Baňas, B.; Beitzke, B.; Carus, M.; Iffland, K.; Kruse, D.; Sarmento, L.; Sfrija, D. Reasonable Guideline Values for THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol) in Food Products. 2017. pp. 1–11. Available online: http://eiha.org/media/2017/09/17-09-18-THC-Position-paper_EIHA.pdf (accessed on 18 August 2023).
Fischedick, J.; Hazekamp, A.; Erkelens, T.; Choi, Y.; Verpoorte, R. Metabolic fingerprinting of Cannabis sativa L., cannabinoids and terpenoids for chemotaxonomy and drug standardization. Phytochemistry 2010, 71, 2058–2073.
Hazekamp, A.; Fischedick, J. Cannabis—From cultivar to chemovar. Drug Test. Anal. 2012, 4, 660–667.
Morales, P.; Hurst, D.; Reggio, P. Molecular targets of phytocannabinoids: A complex picture. Prog. Chem. Org. Nat. Prod. 2017, 103, 103–131.
Citti, C.; Braghiroli, D.; Vandelli, M.; Cannazza, G. Pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis of cannabinoids: A critical review. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 2018, 147, 565–579.
Chen, P.; Rogers, M. Opportunities and challenges in the development of orally administered cannabis edibles. Curr. Opin. Food Sci. 2019, 28, 7–13.
Grotenhermen, F. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of cannabinoids. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 2003, 42, 327–360.
Anges, T.; Dimartino, S.; Lee, S.; Goh, K.; Wen, J.; Oey, I.; Ko, S.; Kwak, H. Interfacial structures of whey protein isolate (WPI) and lactoferrin on hydrophobic surfaces in a model system monitored by quartz crystal microbalance with dispersion (QCM-D) and their formation on nanoemulsions. Food Hydrocoll. 2016, 56, 150–160.
Charoen, R.; Jangchud, A.; Jangchud, K.; Harnsilawat, T.; Naivikul, O.; Mcclements, D. Influence of Biopolymer Emulsifier Type on Formation and Stability of Rice Bran Oil-in-Water Emulsions. J. Food Sci. 2011, 76, 165–172.
Ozturk, B.; Argin, S.; Ozilgen, M.; McClements, D. Formation and stabilization of nanoemulsion-based vitamin E delivery systems using natural biopolymers: Whey protein isolate and gum Arabic. Food Chem. 2015, 188, 256–263.
Formato, M.; Crescente, G.; Scognamiglio, M.; Fiorentino, A.; Pecoraro, M.; Piccolella, S.; Catauro, M.; Pacifico, S. (-)-Cannabidiolic acid, a still overlooked bioactive compound: An initial review and preliminary research. Molecules 2020, 25, 2638.
Anonym. Scientific opinion on the risks to human health associated with the presence of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in milk and other foods of animal origin. EFSA J. 2015, 13, 4141.
House, J.; Neufeld, J.; Leson, G. Assessment of protein quality of hemp seed (Cannabis sativa L.) products using the amino acid corrected protein score method. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2010, 58, 11801–11807.
Di Marco Pisciottano, I.; Guadagnuolo, G.; Soprano, V.; Esposito, M.; Gallo, P. Investigation of Δ9-THC and relevant cannabinoids in products from the Italian market: A study by LC-MS/MS of food, beverages and feed. Food Chem. 2021, 346, 128898.
Thomas, B.F.; ElSohly, M.A. Chapter 2—Biosynthesis and pharmacology of phytocannabinoids and related chemical constituents. In The Analytical Chemistry of Cannabis, 1st ed.; Thomas, B.F., ElSohly, M.A., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2016; pp. 27–41.
Starowicz, M.; Granvogl, M. Trends in food science and technology a review of mead production and physicochemical, toxicological and sensory properties of mead with special emphasis on taste. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2020, 106, 402–416.
Citti, C.; Pacchetti, B.; Vandelli, M.; Forni, F.; Cannazza, G. Analysis of cannabinoids in commercial hemp seed oil and study of cannabidiol acid (CBDA) decarboxylation kinetics. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 2018, 149, 532–540.
Callaway, J.C. Hemp seed as a source of nutrition: A review. Euphytica 2004, 140, 65–72.
Lopresti, A.; Smith, S.; Malvi, H.; Kodgule, R. Investigation of stress relieving and pharmacological effects of ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) extract. Medicine 2019, 98, e17186.
Atalay, S.; Jarocka-Karpowicz, I.; Skrzydlewska, E. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of cannabidiol. Antioxidants 2020, 9, 21.
Babson, K.; Sottile, J.; Morabito, D. Cannabis, cannabinoids and sleep: A review of the literature. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 2017, 19, 23.
Ramadan, M.F. Nutritional value, functional properties and nutraceutical applications of black cumin (Nigella sativa L.): A review. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2007, 42, 1208–1218.
Younes, M.; Aquilina, G.; Castle, L.; Engel, K.-H.; Fowler, P.; Frutos Fernandez, M.J.; Fürst, P.; Gürtler, R.; Husøy, T.; Mennes, W.; et al. Re-evaluation of phosphoric acid–phosphates—di-, tri- and polyphosphates (E 338–341, E 343, E 450–452) as food additives and the safety of proposed extension of use. EFSA J. 2019, 17, e05674.

© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.

Upload a video for this entry

Information

Subjects: Food Science & Technology

Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :

Michaela Bartončíková

Barbora Lapčíková

Lubomír Lapčík

Tomáš Valenta

View Times: 209

Update Date: 02 Jan 2024

Table of Contents

Video Upload Options

Confirm