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Humification (HF) is the natural process of converting bioorganic matter into humic substances (humus, humate, humic acid, fulvic acid, and humin) via geo-microbiological mechanisms under aerobic and/or anaerobic conditions. Humic substances (HSs) and their composition and concentrations mostly determine the basic properties of soils and play an important role in regulating the growth of plants and soil microorganisms and the accumulation and migration of metal ions, radionuclides, and ecotoxicants in soils. Various processes designed for the humification (HF) of animal husbandry wastes, primarily bird droppings, reduce their volumes, solve environmental problems, and make it possible to obtain products with artificially formed humic substances (HSs) as analogues of natural HSs, usually extracted from fossil sources (coal and peat).
Country/Reference | Animal Wastes [References] | AP * |
---|---|---|
USA | Dairy manure [11] | 24,000 |
China | Livestock manure [12] | 3800 |
Chicken manure [13] | 155.0 | |
Brazil | Cattle manure [14] | 1900 |
EU | Farm manure [15] | 1200 |
France | Farm manure [16] | 214.3 |
Germany | Farm manure [16] | 175.7 |
The United Kingdom | Farm manure [16] | 112.0 |
Spain | Farm manure [16] | 108.3 |
Bangladesh | Cow manure [17] | 102.6 |
Poland | Farm manure [16] | 91.3 |
Italy | Farm manure [16] | 89.4 |
India | Poultry manure [18] | 38.0 |
Malaysia | Chicken manure [19] | 23.1 |
Serbia | Farm manure [16] | 18.6 |
Greece | Farm manure [16] | 16.9 |
Belgorod Region, Russia | Total manure [20] | 14.2 |
Turkey | Chicken manure [21] | 11.0 |
Canary Islands | Livestock manure [22] | 0.5 |
Malta | Farm manure [16] | 0.3 |
South Africa | Cattle manure [23] | 0.1 |
Substrate (References) | Conditions/Additives | Products |
---|---|---|
Composting | ||
Dairy manure [28] | Thermal pretreatment (90 °C, 4 h), 60 days | Compost with 75.0–77.0 g of HS/kg |
Cow dung and corn straw (ratio of 1:2) [29] | Addition of 2.5–5% (d.w.) FeSO4, 50 days | Compost with 109.8–129.9 g of HS/kg |
Maize straw and chicken manure (ratio of 6:1) [30] | Addition of benzoic acid (5% d.w.) and soybean residue after oil extraction (15% d.w.), 62 days | Compost with 150.0 g of HS/kg |
Dairy manure and sugarcane leaves and (ratio of 4:1) [31] | Two-step inoculation (0 and 9 days) by Bacillus licheniformis, Aspergillus nidulans and A. oryzae cells (ratio of 1:1:1 w/w/w)—2% d.w., 45 days | Compost with 70.0 g of HS/kg |
Fresh dairy manure and sawdust (ratio of 3.5:1) [32] | Treatment with 0.2 M of H2O2 (0.5 L) and CuCl2 (0.5 g/kg of compost), 46 days | Compost with 151.9 g of HS/kg |
Pig manure and sawdust (ratio of 2:1) [33] | Addition of Black Tourmaline—10% d.w., 42 days | Compost with 50.2 g HA/kg and 24.0 g FA/kg |
Dairy manure and bagasse pith (ratio of 3:1) [34] | Addition of H2O2 (2.14 mmol/kg) and ascorbic acid (3.57 mmol/kg of the d.w.), 34 days | Compost with 180.0 g of HS/kg |
Chicken manure and rice husk (ratio of 6.7:1) [35] | Hyper thermophilic pretreatment (≥80 °C) for 1–9 days and total process for 44 days | Compost with 65% HS of TS (according to calculations ~260 g of HS/kg) |
Pig manure and rice straw (C/N = 25) [36] | Hyper thermophilic pretreatment (90 °C, 4 h), 60 days | Compost with 87.8 g of HS/kg |
Chicken manure and corn straw (C/N = 20) [37] | Addition of malonic acid (0.5%), MnO2 (0.5% d.w.), or their combination, 60 days | Compost with 75.0–87.0 g of HS/kg |
Chicken manure, sawdust and urea (C/N = 30) [38] | Addition of 0.1% adenosine triphosphate or 0.5% malonic acid (d.w.), 49 days | Compost with 40.0–50.0 g of HS/kg |
Digestates and chicken manure [39] | Without additives, 60 days | Compost with 90.0–95.0 g of HS/kg |
Swine manure and corn stalk (ratio of 6:1) [40] | Addition of 1.0% (v/w) Acinetobacter pittii, Bacillus subtilis, B. altitudinis (ratio of 1:2:1 v/v), 32 days | Compost with 88.1 g of HS/kg |
Cattle manure (6.7–30% dry basis), rice straw (21.7–31.7%), biogas residue (30–70%), food waste (8.3%) [12] | Without additives, 30 days | Compost with 75.0–88.5 g of HS/kg |
Dairy manure and bagasse [41] | Addition of 10% Red mud (d.w.), pH 8.7, 45 days | Compost with 115.0–120.0 g of HS/kg |
Cow manure and sugar cane straw (ratio of 5:1) [42] | Addition of 5% biochar from wood obtained via high-temperature gasification (400–550 °C), 40 days | Compost with 29.0–31.0 g of HS/kg |
Chicken manure and rice hulls (C/N = 25) [43] | Addition of lignite (15% w/w), 55 days | Compost with 80.2 g of HS/kg |
Chicken manure and rice straw (C/N =25–30) [44] | Addition of 7.5% montmorillonite (w/w) and pretreatment at 550 °C, 60 days | Compost with 67.0–71 g of HS/kg |
Chicken manure and spent mushroom substrate (ratio of 1:1.2) [45] | Addition of Garden waste (15% fresh weight), 60 days | Compost with 145.0–155.0 g of HS/kg |
Horse manure (C/N = 33) [46] | Vermicomposting (10 g of earthworms (Eisenia andrei)/kg), 35 °C, 6–9 months | Compost with 26.0–26.6 g of HA/kg |
Anaerobic digestion | ||
Chicken manure [47] | 37 °C, 10.0% of TS, and 7.9% VS, 40 days | Digestate—relative content of HLC (34%) and FLC (6%). HS yield was not controlled |
Chicken manure [48] | 37 °C, 10.0% TS, and 7.9% VS, 25 days | Digestate—7.7 g HA/L |
Turkey manure [49] | 37 °C, 51.2% (w/w wet basis) TS, and 71.5% (w/w dry basis) VS, OLR—0.5–2.5 kg VS/m3 per day, 77 days | Content HS in liquid fraction of the effluent and entire effluent (with digestate)—2.36 (2.32 HA, 0.04 FA) and 2.6 (2.04 HA, 0.60 FA) g/L |
Sheep bedding and cattle manure [50] | 18 ± 4 °C; sheep-bedding-to-cattle-manure ratios of 0:100, 25:75, 50:50, 75:25, and 100:0; final content of TS –5%; 5 months | Digestate with HA/FA—1.3–3.0. HS yield was not controlled |
Pig manure [51] | Hydrothermal pretreatment (70–170 °C, 0.5 h), 37 °C, 30 days | Digestate with HLC and FLC in amounts of 58.0–65.9 and 35.5–42.0%, respectively. HS yield was not controlled. |
Hydrothermal carbonization | ||
Dried swine manure [52] | 180 °C, 1 MPa, 15wt.% CaO, 10 h | HCmy—75.2% |
Dried poultry litter [53] | 180 °C, 1 MPa, 1 h | HCmy—60.4% |
Dried poultry litter [54] | 250 °C, 4–5 MPa, H2SO4 (pH 2.0), 2 h | HCmy—38.1% |
Dry swine and chicken manure [55] | 240 °C, 3–4MPa, 10 h | HCmy—54.6% |
Dried swine manure with cellulose [56] | 210 °C, 2 MPa, 5 h | HCmy—52.0% |
Dried swine manure with sawdust [57] | 220 °C, 2–3 MPa, 10 h | HCmy—61.8% |
Dried pig manure [58] | 180 °C, 1 MPa, 1–1.5 g KOH per 100 g manure, 1 h | HCmy—79.0% |
Dried swine manure [59] | 200 °C, 2 MPa, 30 min | HCmy—58.7% |
Chicken litter [60] | 220 °C, 2–3 MPa, 20 min | HCmy—68.0% |
Air-dried pig manure [61] | 200 °C, 2 MPa, 2 h | HCmy—58.8% |
Poultry and swine manure; dairy and beef cattle manure; broiler and layer chicken litter [62] | 180 °C, 1 MPa, 1 h | HCmy—67.3% |
Mixture of chicken manure with sawdust [63] | 260 °C, 40 min | Biochar yield—95.1% |
Dewatered poultry sludge [64] | 268 °C, 47 min | Biochar yield—85.0% |
Pyrolysis | ||
Dried pig manure [58] | 200 °C, 1 h | Biochar yield—40.0% |
Poultry litter [65] | Wet torrefaction pretreatment (300 °C), 600 or 800 °C, supercritical CO2, 1.5–2 h | Biochar yield—51.2% |
Chicken litter [60] | 400 °C, 20 min | Biochar yield—38.0% |
Pre-dried broiler manure [66] | 350 °C, 1 h | Biochar yield—47.0% |
Dried poultry litter [67] | 500 °C, Mixed with H3PO4 and MgO (biomass:H3PO4 ratio = 1:0.5 (w/w), molar P:Mg ratio—1:1), 2 h | Biochar yield—60.0% |
Air-dried pig manure [61] | 300 °C, 1 h | Biochar yield—84.0% |
Dried digested cattle manure [68] | 600 °C, 30 min | Biochar yield—44.8% |
Poultry and swine manure, dairy and beef cattle manure, broiler and layer chicken litter [62] | 400 °C, 1 h | Biochar yield—51.0% |
Dried goat manure [69] | 300 °C, 30 min | Biochar yield—48.6% |
Air-dried poultry manure [70] | 200 °C, 4 h | Biochar yield—95.8% |
Hydrolysis | ||
Air-dried sheep or cow manures [71] | Acid hydrolysis (0.1–1.0 N HCl or H2SO4) at 105 °C and extraction (1N KOH), 1 h | HS yield—45 g/kg (sheep waste) and 56 g/kg (cow waste) |
Air-dried poultry manure [72] | 25 °C, 0.1 N NaOH, 24 h | HA—28.1 g/kg. FA—13.3 g/kg |
Farmyard manure [73] | 25 °C, 0.1 M NaOH, 450 rpm, 48 h | HA yield—10% |
Fresh chicken manure [74] | Subcritical water extraction (230–250 °C, 6 MPa) | Liquid phase with 31.0 g of HA/kg and 20 g of FA/kg |