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Thermal treatment is one of the common methods used in food processing to reduce microbial activity and control the presence of foodborne pathogens. During thermal processing, carbonization reactions are often observed in foods, which could result in the formation of carbon dots (CDs). Typical CDs are regarded as organic carbonization products with sizes less than 20 nm, exhibiting excitation-dependent fluorescence properties. They possess sp2/sp3 carbon skeletons and feature an abundance of functional groups and polymer chains within their structures. The surface of CDs is rich in hydrophilic compounds, including carboxyl, hydroxyl, and amine groups, contributing to their excellent water dispersibility.
Food Groups | Food Source | Purification | Type/Size (nm) | Yield (%) | Quantum Yield (%) | Toxic Evaluation | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Complex processed foods | Pizza | Ethanol for 12 h, then dialyzed (0.5 kDa) | CNPs/2.6–4.1 | NA | 2.1 | In vitro >1 mg/mL, 6 h (Caco-2 cells) In vivo >100 mg/mL, 48 h (C. elegans) |
[49] |
Burger meat (beef) | Ethanol for 12 h, then dialyzed (3.5 kDa) | CDs/0.9–54.8 | NA | 23.3 | In vitro >3.2 mg/mL, 12 h (MO cells) In vivo >3.2 mg/mL, 12 h (bean) |
[50] | |
Canned yellow croaker | Ethanol for 12 h, then dialyzed (1 kDa) | CDs/1.8–5.8 | 0.3 (w/w) | 9.7 | In vitro >0.25 mg/mL, 12 h (HepG2 cells) |
[51] | |
Commercial beverages | Nescafé® coffee | Size exclusion (Sephadex G-25) | CDs/3.0–6.0 | 2.0 (w/w) | 5.5 | In vitro >20 mg/mL, 24 h (CHO cells)/>1.5 mg/mL, 24 h (SMMC-7721 cells) In vivo >1000 mg/g, 56 h (guppy fish) |
[39] |
ILLY® coffee | Dialyzed (14 kDa) | CQDs/2.0–7.0 | NA | NA | NA | [52] | |
Cola | Size exclusion (Sephadex G-25) | CNPs/3.9–5.5 | 3.0 (w/v) | NA | In vitro >20.0 mg/mL, 24 h (CHO cells) In vivo >2000 mg/g, 24 h (mice) |
[53] | |
Beverages | Size exclusion (Sephadex G-25) | CDs/2.8–39.1 | 2.0–5.0 (w/w) | 1.5–11.9 | In vitro >20 mg/mL, 24 h (CHO cells)/>10 mg/mL, 24 h (Tca-8113 cells) In vivo >40 mg/mL, 6 h (onion) |
[54] | |
Fermented food products | Beer | Size exclusion (macroporous resin) | CDs/0.9–4.1 | NA | 1.4–3.9 | In vitro >5 mg/mL, 4 h (MC3T3-E1 cells) In vivo >2000 mg/kg, 24 h (mice) |
[37] |
Tsingtao® beer | Size exclusion (Sephadex G-25) | CDs/1.0–5.0 | 1.2 (w/v) | 7.4 | In vitro >50 mg/mL, 48 h (MCF-7 cells) |
[38] | |
Bread | Methanol for 10 min, then dialyzed (1 kDa) | CNPs/21.4–33.6 | NA | 1.2 | In vitro >2 µg/mL, 24 h (HeLa cells) |
[55] | |
Bread | Methanol for 1 h, then dialyzed (1 kDa) | CNs/5.0–20.0 | NA | NA | In vitro >400 µg/mL, 48 h (hMSCs cells) |
[56] | |
Breadcrumbs | Ethanol for 12 h, then dialyzed (3.5 kDa) | CDs/2.2–3.2 | 0.013 (w/v) | 1.8 | NA | [48] | |
Vinegar | Size exclusion (macroporous resin) | CNPs/1.2–6.2 | 1.5 (w/v) | 5.7 | NA | [57] | |
Vinegar | Ethanol for 12 h, then dialyzed (1 kDa) | CNPs/142.6–281.2 | NA | NA | In vitro 100 µg/mL, 24 h (Caco-2 cells) |
[58] | |
Soybean sauce | Ethanol for 12 h, then dialyzed (1 kDa) | CNPs/298.5–398.2 | NA | NA | In vitro 100 µg/mL, 24 h (Caco-2 cells) |
[58] | |
Tofu wastewater | Ultrasonic shock for 5 min, then centrifuged | CDs/2.0–10.0 | NA | NA | NA | [59] | |
Flavor enhancers | Caramels | Methanol for 10 min, then dialyzed (1 kDa) | CNPs/2.8–5.8 | NA | 0.6 | NA | [55] |
Jaggery | Methanol for 10 min, then dialyzed (1 kDa) | CNPs/12.8–27.8 | NA | 0.6 | In vitro >2 µg/mL, 24 h (HeLa cells) |
[55] | |
Honey | Dialyzed for 48 h, treatment with acetonitrile, then lyophilized | CDs/1.7–4.7 | 1.5 (w/w) | 1.6 | NA | [60] |
Food Groups | Food Source | Synthetic Method | Types/Size (nm) | Quantum Yield (%) | Toxic Evaluation | Potential Biomedical Applications | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Raw meat | Lamb | Oven heating (280 °C for 15–45 min) | CDs/2.6–4.1 | 10 | In vitro >4 mg/mL, 24 h (PCl12 cells) |
Protein adsorption | [26] |
Lamb | Oven heating (200–300 °C for 30 min), then extraction by ethanol for 24 h | CDs/1.7–2.8 | 6–45 | In vitro >2 mg/mL, 7 h (HepG2 cells) |
Scavenging ROS | [27] | |
Beef | Oven heating (280 °C for 30 min), then extraction by ethanol for 30 min | CDs/1.0–4.0 | NA | In vitro >1 mg/mL, 12 h (NRK cells) |
Protein adsorption | [28] | |
Beef broth | Oven heating (117 °C for 30–70 min), then extraction by ethanol for 40 min | CNPs/2.4–5.4 | 2.0–2.5 | In vitro >10 mg/mL, 24 h (NRK cells) |
Carrier for zinc | [29] | |
Duck | Oven heating (200–300 °C for 30 min), then extraction by ethanol for 1 h | CDs/1.5–3.2 | 10.5–38.0 | In vitro >4 mg/mL, 36 h (PC12 cells) In vivo >15 mg/mL, 24 h (C. elegans) |
In vivo C. elegans bio-imaging | [30] | |
Duck | Oven heating (170 °C for 1 h) then extract by ethanol for 1 h | CNPs/0.7–2.3 | 4.4 | NA | Protein adsorption | [31] | |
Chicken | Oven heating (150–300 °C for 1 h) then extraction by ethanol for 36 h | CDs/1.5–20.4 | 6.5–17.9 | In vitro >4 mg/mL, 24 h (HepG2 cells) In vivo >2 g/kg, 20 h (mice) |
Dopamine sensing | [32] | |
Pike eel | Oven heating (160–300 °C for 30 min), then extraction by ethanol for 24 h | CNs/1.8–4.3 | 80.2 | In vitro >20 mg/mL, 24 h (MC3T3-E1 cells) |
In vitro bio-imaging | [33] | |
Atlantic salmon | Oven heating (200 °C for 10–60 min), then extraction by ethanol for 2 h | CQDs/1.9–4.1 | 2.2–12.1 | In vitro >6 mg/mL, 6 h (NRK cells) In vivo >2 g/kg, 24 h (mice) |
In vivo mice bio-imaging | [34] | |
Mackerel | Oven heating (230 °C for 40 min), then extraction by ethanol for 2 h | CDs/0.9–3.5 | 12.0 | NA | Scavenging ROS | [35] | |
Spanish Mackerel | Grill-heating (230 °C for 30 min) and then extraction by 10% methanol for 2 h | CDs/2.9–3.0 | NA | NA | Protein adsorption | [36] | |
Processed food | Breadcrumbs | Oven heating (180 °C with cooking oil) then extraction by petroleum ether for overnight |
CDs/2.6–4.0 | 1.0 | NA | Protein adsorption | [48] |
Flavor enhancers | Grounded spice of cinnamon, red chili, turmeric and black pepper | Hydrothermal (200 °C for 12 h) | CDs/10.3–15.0 | NA | In vitro >2.0 mg/mL, 24 h (HK2 cells) |
In vitro bio-imaging/Anticancer | [118] |
Milk | Commercial cow milk | Hydrothermal (190–200 °C for 1–8 h) | CDs/ 0.5–4.0 |
NA | In vitro >0.4 mg/mL, 24 h (HT22 cells) |
Scavenging ROS | [73] |
Commercial fat-free cow milk | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 2 h) | CDs/ 2.0–4.0 |
12 | In vitro >1 mg/mL, 24 h (U87 cells) |
In vitro bio-imaging | [74] | |
Cow yogurt | Microwave (800 W for 30 min) | CDs/1.4–9.5 | 1.5 | In vitro >7.1 mg/mL, 100 h (MCF-7 and CoN cells) |
In vitro bio-imaging | [75] | |
Fruits | Kiwi, Avocado, or Pear | Hydrothermal (200 °C for 12 h) | CDs/4.0–4.5 | 20–35 | In vitro >1.2 mg/mL, 72 h (HK-2 cells)/>2.2 mg/mL, 72 h (Caco-2 cells) In vivo >64 mg/mL, 80 h (zebra fish embryo) |
In vivo zebrafish bio-imaging/Anticancer | [76] |
Mango | Hydrothermal (100 °C for 1 h, in H2SO4; 80 °C for 15 min, in H3PO4; 80 °C for 30 min, in H3PO4), then adjusted to pH 7.0 with NaOH | CNPs/5.0–10.0, 5.0–10.0, or 10.0–14.0 | 3.9, 1.6, or 0.5 | In vitro >5 mg/mL, 24 h (A549 cells) In vivo >5 mg/kg, 24 h (mice) |
In vivo mice bio-imaging | [77] | |
Sapodilla fruits | Hydrothermal (100 °C for 1 h, in H2SO4; 80 °C for 15 min, in H3PO4; 80 °C for 30 min, in H3PO4), then adjusted to pH 7.0 with NaOH | CDs/1.6–2.2, 2.2–3.6, or 3.3–5.8 | 5.7, 7.9, or 5.2 | In vitro >300 µg/mL, 15 h (HeLa cells) |
In vivo bacterial/Fungal bio-imaging | [78] | |
Cherry plum juice | Hydrothermal (200 °C for 20 h) | CDs/1.0–8.0 | NA | In vitro >500 µg/mL, 24 h (HepG2 cells) |
In vitro bio-imaging | [79] | |
Lemon juice | Hydrothermal (120 °C for 3 h) | CQDs/2.0–4.5 | 9.0 | NA | In vivo plant bio-imaging (onion epidermal cells) | [80] | |
Tomato juice | Hydrothermal (160 °C for 3 h) | CDs/2.4–3.6 | NA | In vitro >100 µg/mL, 96 h (A549, and Human dermal fibroblasts cells) |
Scavenging ROS | [81] | |
Watermelon juice/Orange juice/Lemon juice/Cantaloupe juice/Red plum juice/Green plum juice/Carrot juice/Red pitaya juice/White pitaya juice | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 4 h) | CDs/1.6–5.6 | 13–25 | In vitro >1 mg/mL, 4 h (RAW 264.7 cells) In vivo >2 mg/kg, 5 h (zebrafish eleutheroembryo)/3.2 mg/kg, 6 h (zebrafish eleuthero-embryo) |
In vivo zebrafish bio-imaging (ROS sensing) | [82] | |
Edible plants | Linseed (seeds) | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 12 h) | CDs/4.0–8.0 | 14.2 | In vitro >200 µg/mL, 24 h (MCF-7 cells) |
In vitro bio-imaging | [83] |
Peanuts (seeds) | Hydrothermal (250 °C for 6 h) | CDs/2.0–8.0 | 7.9 | In vitro >1 mg/mL, 24 h (MCF-7 cells) |
In vitro bio-imaging | [84] | |
Wheat bran (seeds) | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 3 h) | CDs/ca. 4.9 | 33.2 | In vitro >6 mg/mL, 24 h (SH-SY5Y cells) |
Drug carrier (amoxicillin; antibiotic) | [85] | |
Forsythia (dried fruit powder) + Urea + Ethanolamine | Microwave (300 W for 2 min, repeat 3 times) | CQDs/1.8–3.6 | NA | NA | Antifungal | [86] | |
Rose (flower petals) + thymol | Powder carbonization (180 °C for 6 h) and decorate with thymol | CDs/5.0–6.0 | NA | In vivo >10 mg/kg, 144 h (rats) |
Immuno-modulatory effect | [64] | |
Phellodendri chinensis (Cortex) | Powder carbonization (400 °C for 1 h) | CDs/0.5–3.6 | 5.6 | In vitro >39 µg/mL, 24 h (L02, 293T, and RAW 264.7 cells) In vivo >0.86 mg/kg, 7 days (mice) |
Immuno-modulatory effect | [65] | |
Cabbage (leaves) | Hydrothermal (140 °C for 5 h) | CQDs/2.0–8.0 | 16.5 | In vitro >700 µg/mL, 24 h (HaCaT cells) |
In vitro bio-imaging | [87] | |
Chinese mugwort (leaves) | Purified fume particulate matter | CDs/3.0–7.0 | NA | In vitro >150 µg/mL, 24 h (HEK 293T cells) |
Antibacterial | [88] | |
Coriander (leaves) | Hydrothermal (240 °C for 4 h) | CDs/1.5–3.0 | 6.48 | In vitro >1 mg/mL, 12 h (A549 and L-132 cells) |
Scavenging ROS/In vitro bio-imaging | [89] | |
Ginkgo (leaves) | Hydrothermal (200 °C for 10 h) | CQDs/2.0–4.0 | 22.8 | NA | Disease detection in mouse serum | [90] | |
Green chiretta (leaf extract) | Hydrothermal (160 °C for 8 h) |
CDs/8.0–11.0 | 15.1 | In vitro >700 µg/mL, 24 h (MCF-7 cells) |
Scavenging ROS/In vitro bio-imaging/Antibacterial/Anticancer | [91] | |
Henna (leaves) | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 12 h) | CDs/2.7–7.8 | 28.7 (Rhodamine B) |
NA | Antibacterial/Anticancer drug sensing | [92] | |
Holy basil (leaves) | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 4 h) | CDs/1.0–4.0 | 9.3 | In vitro >200 mg/mL, 24 h (MDA-MB-648 cells) |
In vitro bio-imaging | [93] | |
Pakchoi (leaves) | Hydrothermal (150 °C for 12 h) | CDs/1.0–3.0 | 37.5 | In vitro >2 mg/mL, 24 h (HeLa cells) |
In vitro bio-imaging | [94] | |
Rosemary (leaves) | Hydrothermal (140–200 °C for 6–12 h) | CDs/11.5–20.7 | NA | NA | Antibacterial | [95] | |
Spinach (leaves) | Hydrothermal (150 °C for 6 h) | CDs/3.0–11.0 | 15.3 | In vitro >200 µg/mL, 24 h (A549 cells) In vivo >2 mg/mL, 24 h (mice) |
In vivo tumor imaging in mice | [96] | |
Tea tree (leaves) | Hydrothermal (220 °C for 3 h) | CDs/1.7–5.0 | 4.9 | In vitro >4 mg/mL, 24 h (HepG2 cells) |
In vitro bio-imaging | [97] | |
Tea tree /Osmanthus/Milk vetch (leaves) | Hydrothermal (200 °C for 2 h) | CDs/3.0–18.0 | NA | In vitro >1 mg/mL, 24 h (293T cells) |
Antibacterial | [98] | |
Escallion (stem) | Hydrothermal (220 °C for 3 h) | CDs/ca. 4.22 | 10.5 | In vitro >200 µg/mL, 24 h (MCF-7 and K562 cells) |
In vitro bio-imaging | [99] | |
Garlic (bulb) | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 10 h) | CDs/ca. 3.6 | 6.8 | NA | In vitro bio-imaging | [100] | |
Ginger (rhizome) | Hydrothermal (300 °C for 20 min) | CDs/3.5–5.1 | 13.4 | In vitro >2.8 mg/mL, 24 h (A549, MDA-MB-231, and FL83B cells)/>1.4 mg/mL, 24 h (HeLa cells)/>0.4 mg/mL, 24 h (HepG2 cells) |
Anticancer | [101] | |
Konjac (bulb) | Powder carbonization (470 °C for 1.5 h) | CDs/ca. 3.4 | 13.0 | In vitro >150 mg/mL, 12 h (HeLa cells) |
In vitro bio-imaging | [102] | |
Rhei radix (rhizome) | Powder carbonization (350 °C for 1 h) | CDs/1.4–4.5 | NA | In vitro >200 µg/mL, 24 h (RAW 264.7 cells) |
Immuno-modulatory effect | [66] | |
Turmeric (rhizome) | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 10 h) | CDs/1.5–4.0 | NA | In vitro >200 µg/mL, 24 h (PC3 cells) |
Antibacterial effects | [103] | |
Turmeric (rhizome) + Ammonium persulfate | Hydrothermal (200 °C for 6 h) | CDs/9.4–11.8 | NA | In vitro >1 mg/mL, 72 h (L929 cells) |
Antibacterial effects/Scavenging ROS | [104] | |
Yam (stem tuber) | Hydrothermal (200 °C for 2 h) | CDs/1.5–4.0 | 9.3 | NA | Anticancer drug sensing | [105] | |
Beetroot (root) | Hydrothermal (160 °C for 8 h) |
CDs/<5.0 | 11.6 | In vitro >2.5 µg/mL, 24 h (HEK-293 cells) |
Anticancer/Scavenging ROS | [106] | |
Carrot (root) | Hydrothermal (170 °C for 12 h) | CDs/ca. 2.3 | 7.6 | In vitro >2 mg/mL, 24 h (MCF-7 cells) |
Drug carrier (mitomycin; anticancer) | [107] | |
Rose-heart radish (root) | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 3 h) | CDs/1.2–6.0 | 13.6 | In vitro >500 µg/mL, 3 h (SiHa cells) |
In vitro bio-imaging | [108] | |
Sweet potato (root) | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 18 h) | CDs/2.5–5.5 | 8.6 | In vitro >150 µg/mL, 24 h (HeLa, HepG2 cells) |
In vitro bio-imaging | [109] | |
Oyster mushroom (Sporocarp) | Hydrothermal (120 °C for 4 h; dissolved in 5% H2SO4) | CDs/5.0–18.0 | NA | In vitro >25 µg/mL, 24 h (HEK 293 cells) |
Antibacterial/Anticancer | [110] | |
Water chestnut (bulb) + Onion (bulb) | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 4 h) | CDs/2.0–4.0 | 12.0 | In vitro >300 µg/mL, 24 h (T24 cells) |
In vivo bio-imaging and quantification of coenzyme A (pig liver) | [111] | |
Natural flavor enhancers | Guar gum (Seed endosperm) | Microwave (400 W for 30 min) | CDs/19.2–31.1 | 7.5 | In vivo >1 mg/mL, 1 h (China rose leaf) |
In vivo plant bio-imaging (China rose leaf guard cells) | [112] |
Honey + Garlic (bulb)+ Ammonia | Hydrothermal (200 °C for 6 h) | CQDs/4.0–13.0 | 4.2 | NA | Antibacterial | [113] |
Precursor | Synthetic Method | Type/Size (nm) | Yield (%) | Quantum Yield (%) | Toxic Evaluation | Potential Biomedical Applications | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ammonium citrate/Spermidine | Powder carbonization (180 °C for 2 h and 260 °C for 2 h) | CDs/3.8–5.4 | 50.8 | 2.8 | In vitro >50 mg/mL, 24 h (HEK-293T, MCF-7, A549, HeLa, and HaCaT cells) In vivo >50 mg/mL, 12 days (mice) |
Antibacterial/Wound healing | [153] |
Citric acid + Diethyl-enetriamine | Powder carbonization (170 °C for 3 h in a nitrogen atmosphere) |
CDs/5.0–8.0 | NA | 25.5 | In vitro >100 μM, 24 h (A2780 cells) In vivo >100 μM, 14 days (mice) |
In vivo tumor image in mice/Drug carrier (cisplatin; anticancer) | [154] |
Curcumin | Powder carbonization (180 °C for 2 h) |
CQDs/ 4.2–5.2 |
10.0–25.0 (w/w) | 0.3 | In vitro >50 mg/mL, 24 h (RD cells) In vivo >25 mg/kg, 15 days (mice) |
Antivirus | [119] |
Curcumin | Powder carbonization (180 °C for 2 h) |
CQDs/ ca. 4.8 |
NA | NA | In vitro >100 mg/mL, 24 h (BHK-21 cells) |
Antivirus | [120] |
Folic acid | Powder carbonization (140 °C for 6 h) |
CDs/1.0–1.6 | NA | NA | In vitro >200 μg/mL, 72 h (chondrocytes and macrophages) In vivo >2 mg/kg, 6 weeks (mice) |
Immuno-modulatory | [121] |
Glutamic acid | Powder carbonization (210 °C for ~1 min) |
GQDs/3.4–5.9 | NA | 54.5 (NaOH) | In vitro >10 mg/mL, 1 h (MH-S cells) In vivo >25 mg/mL, 1 h (mice) |
In vivo bioimage in mice | [122] |
Hesperidin | Powder carbonization (250 °C for 2 h) |
CPDs/46.7–60.1 | NA | NA | In vitro >500 μg/mL, 72 h (RD cells) In vivo >25 mg/kg, 9 days (mice) |
Antivirus | [123] |
Spermidine | Powder carbonization (270 °C for 3 h) |
CQDs/ ca. 6.0 |
NA | 2.0–4.3 | In vitro >200 mg/mL, 24 h (RCK cells) |
Antibacterial | [124] |
Spermidine | Powder carbonization (270 °C for 3 h) |
CQDs/ ca. 6.0 |
NA | 2.0–4.3 | In vitro >200 mg/mL, 24 h (RCK cells) |
Antivirus | [125] |
Spermine + Dopamine | Powder carbonization (250 °C for 2 h) |
CQDs/ ca. 10.0 |
11.4 | 4.3 | In vitro >100 μg/mL 24 h (SIRC cells) In vivo >200 μg/mL, 14 days (rabbit) |
Antibacterial | [155] |
Citric acid/boronic acids | Powder carbonization (250 °C for 0.5 h) and then mix with the boronic acid solution |
CQDs/5.4–7.0 | N.A | N.A | In vitro >600 μg/mL, 24 h (MOLT-4 cells) |
Antivirus | [156] |
Lysine | Powder carbonization (270 °C for 3 h) | CNGs/120.0–510.0 | 66.5 | 8.1 | In vitro >50 μg/mL, 24 h (BHK-21 and Vero cells) In vivo >30 μg/mL, 7 days (chicken embryo) |
Antivirus | [126] |
Lysine | Powder carbonization (270 °C for 3 h) |
CNGs/118.9–178.7 | 66.5 | 8.1 | In vitro >100 μg/mL, 24 h (HUVEC, RD, HepG2, HaCaT, and HEK-293T cells) |
Antibacterial | [127] |
Lysine | Powder carbonization (270 °C for 3 h) |
CNGs/118.9–178.7 | 66.5 | 8.1 | In vivo 50 μg/mL, 96 h (zebrafish embryos)/10 μg/mL, 96 h (zebrafish eleutheroembryo)/0.5 μg/mL, 90 days (adult zebrafish)/2000 mg/kg, 48 h (guinea pigs)/2000 mg/kg, 72 h (rabbit)/2000 mg/kg, 14 days (rats) |
In vivo bioimage in zebrafish | [128] |
Lysine or Arginine | Powder carbonization (240 °C for 3 h) |
CQDs/2.0–7.0 | NA | NA | In vitro >1 mg/mL, 24 h (NIH-3T3, BMSCs, and HUVECs cells) In vivo >2 mg/mL, 5 days (mice) |
Antibacterial/Scavenging ROS/Promoting tissue repair in mice | [129] |
Quercetin | Powder carbonization (270 °C for 2 h) then dissolved in sodium phosphate buffer (pH 12) |
CNGs/326.9–423.3 | 78 | <1 | In vitro >1 mg/mL, 24 h (MDCK cells) In vivo >500 μg/mL, 14 days (mice) |
Antivirus | [130] |
Quercetin + Lysine | Powder carbonization (270 °C for 3 h) |
CNGs/44.8–235.2 | 17.5 | 3.3 | In vitro >100 μg/mL, 24 h (SIRC cells) In vivo >50 μg/mL, 28 days (rabbit) |
Antibacterial/Scavenging ROS/Anti-inflammatory effects | [17] |
Sodium alginate + Ammonium sulfite | Powder carbonization (180 °C for 3 h) |
CNGs/116.0–183.0 | 31.2 | 13.0 | In vitro >1 mg/mL, 24 h (MDCK cells) In vivo >500 μg/mL, 14 days (mice) |
Antivirus/Scavenging ROS/Anti-inflammatory effects | [157] |
Sorbitan monolaurate | Powder carbonization (230 °C for 3 h) then dissolved in ethanol |
VCDs/390–430 | NA | NA | NA | Enzyme and nanomaterial carrier/Cholesterol detection in serum | [21] |
Asparagine | Microwave (180 °C for 15 min) |
CDs/ca. 1.4 | NA | <1 | In vitro >800 μg/mL, 24 h (HeLa cells) |
In vitro bioimage | [131] |
Casein (milk protein) | Microwave (450 W for 30 min; heating for 2 min and then pausing for 15 s) |
CDs/ca. 1.6 | NA | 18.7 | In vivo >200 μg/mL, 10 min (spinach leaf) |
In vivo plant bio-imaging (spinach guard and epidermal cells) | [132] |
Chitosan | Microwave (700 W for 9.5 min) |
CDs/2.7–6.5 | 6.4 | 6.4 | NA | In vitro bioimage | [133] |
Citric acid + Cysteine | Microwave (140 °C for 25 min) |
CQDs/0.9–1.0 | NA | 91.2 | In vivo ca. 1 mL/mice, 3 h (mice) |
Drug carrier (insulin)/In vivo glycemic control | [134] |
Citric acid + Poly-ethyleneimine | Microwave (1150 W for 3 min) then mixed with locked nucleic acid (LNA) |
CDs/ca. 3.7 | NA | NA | In vitro >1 μg/mL, 3 days (KMM, BC3, BCP1, BCBL1, and BJAB cells) In vivo >50 μg/mice, 3 weeks (mice) |
Antivirus | [135] |
Citric acid + RNase A enzyme | Microwave (700 W for 3–5 min) |
CDs/ca. 4.0 | NA | 24.2 | In vitro >3 mg/mL, 24 h (MGC-803 cells) In vivo >5 mg/mL, 24 h (mice) |
In vivo tumor imaging in mice | [136] |
Citric acid + Tryptophan | Microwave (700 W for 3 min) |
CDs/ca. 2.6 | NA | 20.6 | In vitro >400 μg/mL, 24 h (MGC-803 cells) |
In vitro bioimage/Drug carrier (siRNA) | [137] |
Citric acid + Urea | Microwave (800 W for 15 min) |
CDs/1.0–5.5 | NA | NA | NA | Antibacterial | [138] |
Citric acid + Urea | SPMA (6 kW for 5 min) | GQDs/ 3.0–20.0 |
ca. 40 | NA | In vitro >50 μg/mL, 72 h (H171 cells) |
Antivirus | [139] |
Citric acid + Urea | Microwave (650 W for 4–5 min), then powder carbonization (60 °C for 1 h) |
CDs/2.0–6.0 | NA | 36.0 | In vitro >100 μg/mL, 96 h, (HepG2 and HL-7702 cells) In vivo >500 μg/mL, 14 days (mice) |
Drug carrier (doxorubicin; anticancer)/In vivo tumor imaging in mice | [140] |
Glucose + Arginine | Microwave (700 W for 10 min) |
CDs/1.0–7.0 | NA | 12.7 | In vitro >200 μg/mL, 24 h (MEFs cells) |
In vitro bioimage/Drug carrier (circular DNA)/Chondrogenic differentiation | [141] |
Microcrystalline cellulose | Alkaline hydrolysis (90 °C for 2 h), then infrared-assisted heating (125 °C for 6 h) | CQDs/6.7–12.5 | NA | NA | NA | Antibacterial/Anticancer | [148] |
Boronic acid derivatives | Hydrothermal (160 °C for 8 h) |
CQDs/8.9–9.5 | NA | 0.05 | In vitro >100 μg/mL, 8 h (Huh-7 cells) |
Antivirus | [158] |
Ciprofloxacin (antibiotic) | Hydrothermal (200 °C for 4 h) |
CDs/4.7–6.8 | NA | 25.3 | NA | Antibacterial | [159] |
Citric acid + amino acid (Arg, Cys, Glu, Gly, His, Leu, Phe, and Tyr) | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 12 h; dissolved in formamide) |
CDs/3.0–6.0 | NA | 25.5–62.1 | In vitro >100 μg/mL, 24 h (HeLa cells) |
In vitro bioimage | [160] |
Citric acid + Curcumin | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 1 h) |
CQDs/1.2–1.8 | NA | 3.6 | In vitro >250 μg/mL, 18 h (RAW 264.7 cells) |
Antivirus | [161] |
Citric acid + Branched poly-ethyleneimine | Hydrothermal (200 °C for 12 h) |
CQDs/2.0–8.0 | NA | NA | In vitro >500 μg/mL, 72 h (L929 cells) |
Antibacterial | [162] |
Citric acid + Curcumin | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 24 h) |
CDs/1.5–2.5 | NA | 30 | In vitro >250 μg/mL, 48 h (RAW 264.7, HK-2, and HPMCs cells) |
Antibacterial | [163] |
Citric acid + Ethyl-enediamine/ampicillin (antibiotic) | Hydrothermal (250 °C for 4 h) coupled with ampicillin conjugation | CDs/ca. 34.0–54.0 | 60 | 19 | In vitro >200 μg/mL, 24 h (HeLa cells) |
Antibacterial | [164] |
Vit C + PEG-diamine | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 1 h) |
CDs/4.7 | NA | NA | In vitro >250 μg/mL, 48 h (PK-15 and MARC-145 cells) |
Antivirus | [165] |
Caffeic acid | Hydrothermal (200 °C for 6 h) |
CQDs/1.5–2.5 | 10.2 | NA | In vitro >10 mg/mL, 12 h (HeLa cells) |
Antibacterial/Antivirus | [142] |
Carrageenan or Pullulan | Alkaline hydrolysis (90 °C for 2 h), then hydrothermal (210 °C for 6 h) |
CQDs/ ca. 3.1 or ca. 4.2 |
NA | NA | In vitro >1000 or >500 μg/mL, 24 h (Vero E6 cells) |
Antivirus/Anticancer | [143] |
Chlorogenic acid + Caffeic acid + Quinic acid | Hydrothermal (230 °C for 2 h) |
CQDs/5.0–10.0 | NA | NA | In vitro >100 μg/mL, 24 h (L02 cells) In vivo >200 mg/kg, 90 min (mice) |
Anticancer/GSH oxidase-like activity/Scavenging ROS | [52] |
Folic acid | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 2 h) |
CDs/3.0–11.0 | NA | 23.0 | In vitro >1 mg/mL, 3 h (U87 cells) |
In vitro bioimage | [144] |
Fucoidan | Hydrothermal (200 °C for 12 h) |
CDs/4.0–10.0 | NA | NA | In vitro >1 mg/mL, 3 h (MC3T3-E1 cells) |
Antibacterial | [145] |
Glucose, Vit C, or Fructose | Hydrothermal (200 °C for 12 h) |
CDs/ca. 9.0–10.0 | 34/56/29 (w/w) | 1.8/1.5/0.3 | In vitro >1000/>250/<1 μg/mL, 96 h (HeLa cells) |
Drug carrier (doxorubicin) | [146] |
Glucose + Ethylenediamine | Hydrothermal (200 °C for 4 h) |
CDs/1.0–3.0 | NA | NA | In vivo >2.5 mg/mL, 3 h (zebrafish embryos)/>1.5 mg/mL, 10 h (zebrafish eleuthero-embryos) |
In vivo bio-imaging in zebrafish embryos and eleuthero-embryos | [166] |
Glucose + Glutamic acid | Hydrothermal (125 °C for 30 min, then 200 °C for 20 min; dissolved in NaOH) |
CDs/ca. 2.0 | 29.8 | NA | In vitro >1000 μg/mL, 48 h (HeLa cells) |
Drug and fluorescent dye carrier (doxorubicin; anticancer)/In vitro bioimage | [167] |
Glucose + Aspartic acid | Hydrothermal (125 °C for 30 min, then 200 °C for 20 min; dissolved in NaOH) |
CDs/1.8–2.7 | 34.5 | 7.5 | In vitro >500 μg/mL, 48 h (L929 and C6 cells) In vivo >200 mg/kg, 90 min (mice) |
In vivo tumor image in mice | [168] |
Glycyrrhizic acid | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 7 h; dissolved in NaOH) |
CQDs/ ca. 11.4 |
NA | 1.4 | In vitro >450 μg/mL, 48 h (MRC 145 cells) In vivo >200 mg/kg, 90 min (mice) |
Antivirus | [143] |
Sorbitol + Ethyl-enediamine | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 5 h) |
CDs/ca. 5.0 | NA | 8.9 | In vitro >1000 μg/mL, 24 h (MCF-7 cells) |
In vitro bioimage | [160] |
Vitamin C | Hydrothermal (180 °C for 4 h) |
CDs/ca. 9.0 | NA | NA | In vitro >1 mg/mL, 48 h (NIH-3T3 cells) In vivo >1 mg/mL, 48 h (fungus) |
Fluorescent dye carrier/In vivo bioimaging in fungus Candida albicans | [149] |
Triolein | Hydrothermal (220 °C for 3 days), then dissolved in NaOH |
CDsomes/80.0–100.0 | ca. 30 | 4.1 | In vitro >300 μg/mL, 24 h (HaCaT cells) In vivo >100 μg/mL, 12 days (mice) |
Antibacterial/Controllable ROS induction/Wound healing | [150] |
Triolein | Hydrothermal (220 °C for 3 days), then dissolved in NaOH |
CDsomes/80.0–100.0 | NA | 1.0 | In vitro >300 μg/mL, 48 h (HeLa cells) |
In vitro bioimage | [20] |
Triolein | Hydrothermal (220 °C for 3 days), then dissolved in NaOH |
CDsomes/80.0–100.0 | 68 | NA | In vitro >400 μg/mL, 24 h (NIH-3T3 cells) |
Anticancer/Controlable ROS induction | [151] |
Citric acid + Glutathione | Oil bath (200 °C) | CDs/2.5–3.0 | NA | 80.3 | In vitro >3 mg/mL, 24 h (A549 cells) |
In vitro bioimage | [169] |
Vitamin C | Electrolysis (0.1 A for 3 weeks) |
CDs/3.0–6.0 | NA | ca. 30 | NA | Antibacterial/Antifungal | [170] |