The Socioeconomic Factors of Street Food Vending

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1		Luisa Brito	--	2909	2023-10-18 12:06:50	\|
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/foods12203774

The sale of ready-to-eat (RTE) street food represents an important source of income in many developing countries. However, these foods are frequently implicated in outbreaks of gastrointestinal diseases. Street food vendors face several constraints that hamper improvement in the microbiological quality of their products.

read-to-eat (RTE) street food food contamination hygiene practices

1. Introduction

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 600 million cases of foodborne illness and 420,000 deaths occur each year, with 125,000 deaths among children under five years old, due to unsafe food consumption ^[1]. This presents a significant burden on public health, economic, and social sectors, particularly in African countries and Southeast Asian regions ^[2]. Low-income countries are particularly vulnerable to the risk of foodborne illness due to unsafe food preparation; poor individual and collective hygiene; inadequate production; handling, and storage conditions; low levels of literacy and education; and a lack or insufficient implementation of food safety legislation ^[3]^[4]. These risks are particularly pronounced in street food vending, which plays a vital socioeconomic role in meeting the nutritional and subsistence needs of low-income urban populations around the world ^[5].

Ready-to-eat (RTE) foods are pre-cooked, pre-cleaned, and mostly packaged foods that are ready for consumption without prior preparation or cooking ^[6]. RTE includes salads, cooked meats, smoked fish, desserts, sandwiches, cheese, and food cooked in advance to serve cold, being an increasing commodity in the industrialized world ^[7]. However, another aspect of these foods is present in developing countries, where RTE street foods are sold by vendors and hawkers in public places for immediate or later consumption without any further processing or preparation ^[6]^[8]. Street food is an important source of RTE food in these countries and provides a significant contribution to employment, household income, and affordable food while also being appreciated for its convenience and typical flavors ^[9]^[10]. It is estimated that approximately 2.5 billion people consume street food daily. This type of consumption supports the livelihoods of millions of low-income people and contributes significantly to the economy ^[11]. In developing countries, mainly in Africa, RTE street food vendors are usually associated with small family businesses whose food preparation locations are the vendor’s own homes, sidewalks, or any other informal places ^[8]. In recent years, in Asian countries such as India, Pakistan, and China, the street food trade has reached new dimensions and is recognized as a phenomenon of great economic and sociocultural importance ^[12]. In Africa, the contribution of street food vending is largely neglected despite its major contribution to the socio-economic stability of many low-income urban communities ^[13]^[14]. It is estimated that in South Africa, in 2022, this informal sector may have been the main source of employment, representing about 18% of citizens working in the street vending sector, where more than 70% of street vendors sold RTE street food ^[13].

Women and children are the main actors in the street food sector ^[3]^[13]. In most cases, these female entrepreneurs are single mothers or widows working in this sector to support the family economy throughout their working lives due to the lack of opportunities in the formal sectors ^[15]^[16]. As they are informal sellers, these entrepreneurs have difficulties accessing financing through credit institutions ^[13]^[16]. Nor do they count on the support of government entities in their training in good manufacturing practices (GMP) and/or business management ^[3]^[15]. These factors make street foods susceptible to microbiological contamination, being an important source of diarrheal disease outbreaks. This type of sale consequently represents a high-risk business for public health ^[5].

2. Socio-Economic Characteristics of Street Food Vendors in Developing Countries

In examining the characterization of street food vendors, a comprehensive analysis of 24 studies covering 15 countries, located mainly in Sub-Saharan Africa, was carried out. However, the inclusion also extended to regions of Asia and South America. It is notable that women constitute the predominant segment, representing more than 55% of the total number of street food vendors in all countries examined, except in Haiti and Bangladesh, Interestingly, the study revealed that, although in smaller proportions, there were cases of underage food vendors identified in 11 of the 15 countries under scrutiny. RTE street food vending represents an important business opportunity for many low-income families, as it has a low initial investment cost, combined with the absence of regulation, thus allowing easy entry into the sector ^[3]. As an alternative to the lack of formal employment, most young people and women turn to the informal sector, mainly street vending ^[17]^[18]. Although a considerable number of men are involved in street vending, women are the main vendors, the majority being single or widowed with dependent children ^[19]. Due to a lack of employment opportunities in the formal sector and a lack of sufficient resources for another type of commercial activity, women resort to selling street food. In addition to this activity requiring a low initial cost, women are the ones who usually prepare the food ^[3]^[4]^[13].

In most countries analyzed, more than half of street food vendors have worked in this sector for more than five years, having accumulated a lot of practical experience over time. However, more than 60% of these vendors demonstrate a lack of knowledge about the transmission of foodborne diseases ^[20], and 60 to 90% of these vendors have never benefited from training on good production and handling practices for RTE foods ^[20]^[21]^[22]. In the context of street food vendor education, in eight of the nine African countries analyzed, more than 35% of vendors had, as their highest educational qualification, a primary level of education. This pattern of educational level was also reflected in the results of the study conducted in Malaysia, where it was found that 30.8% of street food vendors had only attended primary school ^[23].

In some African ethnicities, women do not have the right to education, being often only able to attend school until the primary level. Girls are thus relegated to domestic activities, not having the same opportunities for education and training as boys ^[12]^[24]. Girls are trained in food preparation, household chores, and agricultural activities because their main activities are to take care of the house and to prepare for marriage ^[25]. Premature marriages or unions and educational policies that deny the education of pregnant girls are other factors that contribute to their helplessness in several developing countries, with particular emphasis on Africa ^[26]^[27]. All these sociocultural factors contribute to the overall vulnerability of women and make them dependent on men, agriculture, or the informal sector, such as street food sales ^[28].

According to the World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa has the lowest adult literacy rate in the world, with less than 60% of its population aged 15 and over able to read and write, which is far below the world rate of 80% ^[29]. The low level of education makes it difficult to access formal work opportunities. Perhaps it is for this reason that several studies report that most street food vendors have a low level of education ^[30]^[31]. As a result of low education, vendors might be unaware of good hygienic practices or of the transmission of pathogenic microorganisms through food and do not show interest in acquiring and implementing new knowledge ^[11]^[32].

3. Environmental Conditions and Sanitary Facilities

The safety of RTE street food is affected by the quality of the raw materials used. Microbial cross-contamination of food can occur along the entire production chain, from processing, transport, storage, display, and preparation to serving food for consumption ^[1]. The combination of factors such as poor hygiene practices by food handlers and the lack of facilities, namely, a lack of potable water; inadequate infrastructure; food storage at temperatures that favor microbial growth; and exposure of food to animals, including rodents and insects, are often listed as major problems ^[1]^[33]^[34]^[35]. Fresh ingredients such as fish, meat, and fresh vegetables used in food preparation are also purchased in informal markets, which, in most cases, do not have adequate conditions for selling these products ^[4]^[36]. Cases of a lack of sectorization of these informal markets are frequently reported, in which it is possible to find domestic animals for slaughter, mainly chickens and goats, for sale alongside the sale of fish and meat or even fresh vegetables ^[4]^[37]. These practices are encouraged by the lack of regulation and inspection in these countries.

Salamandane et al. (2021) ^[3] analyzed the environment of street food vendors in Mozambique and observed that most vendors did not have access to potable water and toilets at the cooking and/or selling place. Remaining in Mozambique, most municipal markets, essential sources of raw ingredients used to prepare RTE street food, such as fresh vegetables, fruits, and meat, do not have access to potable water ^[4]. Additionally, sanitary facilities in these markets are in a significantly dilapidated state ^[3]^[4]. This situation contributes to product contamination. Indeed, the scarcity of potable water sources in places where street food is prepared and/or sold seems to be prevalent in most developing countries. Studies conducted in Lesotho ^[38] revealed that over 90% of street food vendors did not have access to tap water, and 40% of vendors did not have access to toilet facilities. However, even under these conditions, 84% of these vendors used reusable plates that were ‘cleaned’ after each use ^[38].

In Uganda, a high percentage of coverage of access to potable water was observed among street food vendors. In fact, more than 90% had access to tap water at the point of preparation and/or sale of street food. However, more than 80% stated that they did not have access to a clean toilet and used reusable plates ^[39]. The availability of potable water was also investigated in studies conducted in Brazil and Cameron, with coverage exceeding 76%, and in Vietnam, with coverage exceeding 67% of street food vendors ^[28]^[40]^[41].

4. Consumer Safety Awareness and Education

The perception of street food quality results from the comparison of customer expectations and perceived performance ^[42]. This perception is based on the type of service, including the organization of the point of sale, cleanliness, and consumer safety (in terms of health), among other aspects ^[42]^[43]. However, cultural factors such as the preference for traditional foods, purchasing power, and consumer knowledge are decisive for the quality and safety of RTE food sold on the street ^[43]. Since food safety is an attribute that is often not possible to be observed, it is not valued by consumers, tending to be clearly insufficient in non- or poorly regulated markets.

According to Samapundo et al. (2015) ^[44], most street food consumers in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, do not have good knowledge about food safety and do not associate food safety with possible outbreaks of diarrheal diseases. In a study conducted in Mozambique, Salamandane et al. (2020) reported that women demonstrated greater knowledge about food safety and a higher level of use of basic hygiene rules when compared to men. A study in Haiti reports that street food vendors were determined to have higher levels of food safety knowledge than consumers. Most consumers were aware of the importance of hand washing and proper cleaning when it comes to preventing foodborne diseases but had difficulty identifying groups at risk for foodborne diseases ^[45]. A study conducted in Handan, China ^[11], concluded that younger consumer’s attitudes toward food safety were significantly better than those of older age groups. This difference was correlated with the educational level and, correspondingly, with the relatively high income of younger individuals ^[11].

In fact, a lack of consumer education and awareness is a common problem in low- and middle-income countries, affecting food safety and sustainability ^[46]. The implementation of consumer awareness will represent a change in demand for safer and more sustainable food. This shift in consumer choices and behavior requires time and a targeted approach. Education to raise awareness about the importance of food safety and dietary standards is one way to empower consumers. Education gives consumers the tools to raise their voices and increase the demand for quality and safer products and services on the market ^[46]^[47].

5. Public Health Implications of Street Food Vending

5.1. Main Foodborne Pathogens

Street food vending is a social, economic, and cultural activity in an evolving world. This type of activity contributes to providing accessible and low-cost meals to urban populations, thus ensuring food and nutritional security for this population throughout the world, particularly in lower-income countries ^[1]. Additionally, street foods attract tourists as they are convenient, relatively inexpensive, and offer unique flavors and experiences that can reflect traditional local cultures. Despite the strong contribution of street food to improving the income of many low-income families in developing countries, street food is often associated with outbreaks of food- and -water-borne diarrheal diseases ^[48].

Enterobacteriaceae (Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Shigella spp.), Staphylococcus aureus, and Listeria monocytogenes are the most common pathogens found in RTE street foods. Pathogenic strains of E. coli have been found in several RTE street foods in Nigeria ^[49]^[50], Mozambique ^[3]^[51], Ethiopia ^[51], and Egypt ^[52]. Contamination with E. coli O157:H7, the most common pathotype causing enterohemorrhagic disease (EHEC), possessing the stx gene that encodes Shiga toxin, has been frequently reported. In addition to this pathotype, contamination of RTE street foods has been reported with other pathotypes, such as enterotoxigenic (ETEC), enteropathogenic (EPEC), enteroinvasive (EIEC), and enteroaggregative (EAEC) ^[49]^[51]. Salmonella and Shigella are other foodborne gastrointestinal pathogens linked to the consumption of RTE street food. In Pakistan, Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Enteritidis serovars were found in 38% of analyzed RTE street foods ^[53]. Salmonella Typhimurium has also been reported in other countries, such as Bangladesh and Nigeria, as one of the most important foodborne pathogens. The quality of water consumed in most developing countries also represents an important source of diarrheal diseases ^[54].

Foodborne outbreaks of L. monocytogenes and S. aureus are often associated with the consumption of RTE street foods. Recently (from January 2017 to July 2018), a foodborne listeriosis outbreak was reported in South Africa, with 1060 laboratory-confirmed cases of listeriosis and 216 deaths recorded ^[55]^[56]. Epidemiological investigations revealed that this outbreak was related to cross-contamination with L. monocytogenes in the facility plant of a major producer of RTE processed meat ^[55]. L. monocytogenes was detected in RTE street food sold in Nabia and India. In India, contamination with L. monocytogenes has been associated with RTE street foods produced with milk or dairy products and fruit, such as curds, cheese, banana milkshakes, chocolate, almond milk, and strawberries ^[57]. Meanwhile, in Namibia, the contamination was related to RTE meat sold on the street ^[58].

The growth in food matrices of certain strains of Staphylococcus, particularly S. aureus, can lead to the production of enterotoxins. These enterotoxins have the potential to induce staphylococcal food poisoning, which is commonly characterized by severe nausea and vomiting that occurs within a period of 2 to 8 h after consumption of contaminated food. It is important to highlight that the cooking process effectively eliminates S. aureus, but it is insufficient in deactivating the heat-stable enterotoxins produced by these bacteria ^[59]. S. aureus was identified in RTE street foods in 8 of the 13 countries. In Staphylococcus recovered from RTE street foods sold in Mozambique, genes (seA, seC, and seD) coding for staphylococcal enterotoxins were detected ^[60]. Also in Benin, genes coding for staphylococcal enterotoxins (seA, seB, and seD); TSST-1; and toxins ETA, PVL, and LukE/D were found in S. aureus isolated from RTE street food ^[61]. S. aureus is among the normal microbiota of the skin and upper respiratory tract of healthy humans and can be transmitted to RTE street food, mainly through asymptomatic food handlers ^[62].

Furthermore, other enteric pathogens, such as Vibrio cholerae, Cryptosporidium, and Giardia lamblia, are frequently reported in waterborne and foodborne outbreaks in many Sub-Saharan African countries ^[63]^[64].

5.2. Transmission of Antibiotic Resistance Genes

In addition to the direct effect of pathogens on foodborne diseases, there is another risk, which is the transmission of antibiotic-resistance genes from these to other bacteria. Antibiotic-resistant infections are on the rise, both in the general population and in healthcare settings, posing a significant public health challenge to already overburdened healthcare systems ^[65]. Due to the overuse and misuse of antibiotics in humans and livestock, bacteria are becoming increasingly resistant to commonly used treatments, making infections difficult, and sometimes impossible, to cure ^[66]. This has led to an increase in the burden of hospitalizations and deaths with very high costs for society ^[65]^[66]. Potential health risks from antibiotic resistance have been linked to farm-to-table contamination of food by strains of E. coli, Salmonella Typhimurium, Shigella, S. aureus, and other antibiotic-resistant foodborne species ^[67]^[68].

Zurfluh et al. (2015) ^[69] found 78.3% multidrug-resistant and extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae in RTE salads, fresh-cut fruit, and sprouts imported from the Dominican Republic, India, Thailand, and Vietnam. ESBLs are enzymes that hydrolyze penicillin, as well as aztreonam and first-, second-, and third-generation cephalosporins ^[70]^[71]. The problem of ESBL-producing bacteria has been identified in medical systems and communities worldwide ^[71]^[72]. One of the main reasons for this rapid spread is that ESBL-producing bacteria can be transmitted through contaminated food or water ^[73]^[74].

In Mozambique, multidrug resistance was related to the presence of β-lactamase resistance genes, namely, the bla_TEM, bla_SHV, bla_CTX-M, ACC, FOX, tetracycline, and sulfonamide resistance genes ^[60]. In India ^[75], Burkina Faso ^[76], and Algeria ^[77], β-lactamase genes have also been associated with antibiotic resistance in enterobacteria recovered from RTE street food.

S. aureus is an important foodborne pathogen due to the combination of toxin-mediated virulence, invasiveness, and antibiotic resistance. In RTE street food sold in Mozambique, Salamandane et al. (2022) ^[60] found 59.6% of multidrug-resistant staphylococci with a high level of resistance to methicillin and vancomycin. In Gana, Ayamah et al. (2021) ^[78] found 69.44% multidrug resistance in S. aureus recovered from RTE street food . In Ethiopia, 31% of S. aureus recovered from RTE street food were resistant to methicillin ^[79].

Infections with methicillin-resistant strains of S. aureus (MRSA) have been linked to hospital-acquired infections (HA-MRSA) ^[60]^[80]. However, in recent decades, there has been an increase in the number of community-acquired (CA-MRSA) and livestock-associated (LA-MRSA) MRSA infections ^[81]^[82]. Some authors associate this increase in CA-MRSA and LA-MRSA infections with RTE food contamination, either through contaminated raw materials or through contamination by food handlers ^[60]^[68].

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Acácio Salamandane

Manuel Malfeito-Ferreira

Luísa Castro Brito

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Update Date: 19 Oct 2023

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