Phytoremediation for Arsenic-Contaminated Gold Mine Waste

Version	Summary	Created by	Modification	Content Size	Created at	Operation
1		Julie Anne Besedin	--	2902	2023-10-10 01:58:12	\|
2	format correct	Wendy Huang	Meta information modification	2902	2023-10-12 06:22:42	\|

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/app131810208

Arsenic (As)-contaminated gold mine waste is a global problem and poses a significant risk to the ecosystem and community (e.g., carcinogenic, toxicity). Research is investigating environmentally sustainable techniques to remediate As-rich mine waste. Biological techniques involving plants (phytoremediation) and soil amendments have been studied to bioaccumulate As from soil (phytoextraction) or stabilise As in the rhizosphere (phytostabilisation).

gold mine waste arsenic toxicity phytoremediation plant species soil amendments phosphate lime

1. Introduction

Arsenic (As) is an element with metalloid characteristics which occurs naturally and is the 20th most abundant element in the Earth’s crust ^[1]. Due to anthropogenic activities, such as gold mining, As concentrations in the environment are elevated above naturally occurring levels ^[2]. In legacy gold mining areas, abandoned As-rich mine waste dumps act as ongoing sources of As to the surrounding environment. Mine waste such as tailings and grey sands have polluted landscapes through mechanisms such as soil erosion as a result of a lack of vegetation cover and As leaching ^[3]. This is a concern because arsenic is toxic to all living organisms, is carcinogenic, and disrupts ecosystem functions, for example those involved in soil properties, geochemical cycles, and water acidification ^[4]^[5]. As such, to reduce the burden posed by arsenic from mine waste, there is a need to identify and explore sustainable remediation techniques that alleviate environmental pollution whilst also restoring ecosystem functioning. It is vital to restore ecosystem functions because natural fertile soil takes thousands of years to form ^[6]. Currently, in some regions of the world, 50 tonnes (t) per hectare of fertile soil has been lost to degradation ^[6]. In India, mined land equates to approximately one-third of the agricultural land ^[4]. It is essential to restore degraded soil with increased population growth and increasing demand for fertile agricultural soil ^[6]. In addition, soil organic matter stores more organic carbon (C) than the atmosphere and global vegetation combined ^[6]^[7]. Increasing soil organic matter and sequestering soil carbon in degraded soils will improve key soil fertility parameters, such as nutrients, microorganisms, and soil structure, which supports living organisms and biodiversity ^[7]^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12]. Biological remediation techniques involving plants and soil amendments are environmentally sustainable methods; revegetation of barren mine waste sites also reduces soil erosion, mitigating further contamination. Phytoremediation is the use of plants to remediate soil. Plants can either bioaccumulate As (phytoextraction) or stabilise As in the rhizosphere (phytostabilisation) ^[13]^[14]. However, As is toxic to plants; for example, arsenic-contaminated soil and pore water can have detrimental impacts on the agriculture sector, such as rice production ^[15]. Rice is a staple food for many. A study by Muehe et al. ^[15] investigated rice production under climatic and As stress. Climatic stress (38 °C/850 ppmv CO₂) and As stress caused a 16% and 39% yield reduction, respectively ^[15]. Soil amendments are vital to reduce toxicity and improve plant productivity ^[13]. Discovering new and effective remediation techniques for legacy mine waste has never been more important for the environment and world food security.

Many studies have investigated the impacts of As-rich soil on vegetable plants, crops, and various methods involving low As concentrations (e.g., 30 mg/kg), As-spiked soil, and hydroponics ^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19]. However, phytoremediation is dependent on soil characteristics and the geochemical background such as pH, soil texture, organic matter, inorganic/organic carbon, and speciation ^[20]^[21]^[22]^[23]. It is essential to test the ability of a plant in phytoremediation studies using site-specific soil to account for physical and chemical characteristics as well as biological factors ^[21]^[22].

2. Identified Plant Species

Identifying plant species that bioaccumulate, hyperaccumulate, or stabilise As is vital for phytoremediation and has been widely studied (Table 1) ^[24]. It is stated that to confirm a As hyperaccumulating species, the above ground biomass must accumulate >1000 mg/kg of arsenic ^[25]^[26]^[27]^[28]. The first As hyperaccumulator was discovered by Ma et al. ^[14]; the Chinese brake fern, Pteris vittata, grew on chromated copper-arsenate-contaminated soil. The fronds of P. vittata contained 1442–7526 mg/kg of As, and contaminated soil had As concentrations ranging from 18.8 to 1603 mg/kg ^[14]. P. vittata growing on uncontaminated soil (0.47–7.56 mg/kg, As) was also analysed, and fronds bioaccumulated 11.8–64.0 mg/kg of As ^[14]. In general, the expected bioaccumulation of As on uncontaminated soil is 3.6 mg/kg, almost half the bioaccumulation reported for P. vittata ^[14]. The search for additional As hyperaccumulators is currently underway, and reports have identified Pteris umbrosa as a possible candidate ^[24]^[29]. A study by Zhao et al. ^[29], aimed to identify additional Pteris species for As hyperaccumulating characteristics. P. vittata, Pteris cretica, Pteris longifolia, and P. umbrosa were exposed to 0–500 mg/kg of As and results showed similar As hyperaccumulating capabilities to those displayed by P. vittata ^[29]. For example, both P. vittata and P. umbrosa were efficient in bioaccumulating As in their fronds, 57.1 ± 9.0% and 56.8 ± 4.8%, respectively, a characteristic essential for phytoextraction ^[30]. Pteris species are fern plants typically found in rainforests, along coasts, dry regions, and tropical and subtropical landscapes ^[31]. The habitat of P. umbrosa is the east coast of Australia, which might have implications for phytoextraction in non-coastal and arid to semi-arid regions such as Bendigo, a gold mining town in regional Victoria ^[24]. Hyper/accumulating plant species currently identified for As are primarily fern species, which have specific climate requirements; this causes concern for their use in phytoremediation projects for gold mine waste locations ^[32]. Fern species are unsuitable for arid to semi-arid climates, which are the common environments for gold mining towns. There is a need to identify plant species for phytoremediation projects that are compatible with arid to semi-arid climates, such as tussock grasses, and conducting studies with site-specific soil.

Table 1. Identified plant species and their abilities to phytoextract or phytostabilise arsenic in soil.

Plant Species	Common Name	Soil As (mg/kg)	As Accumulation	As Stabilisation	Characteristic	Reference
Pteris vittata	Chinese brake fern	18–1603	1442–7526 mg/kg (fronds)		Hyperaccumulator	^[14]
Pteris vittata	Chinese brake fern	0.47–8	11–64 mg/kg (fronds)		Hyperaccumulator	^[14]
Pteris vittata	Chinese brake fern	500	6200–7600 mg/kg		Hyperaccumulator	^[29]
Pteris cretica	Cretan brake fern	500	6200–7600 mg/kg		Hyperaccumulator	^[29]
Pteris longifolia	Longleaf brake	500	6200–7600 mg/kg		Hyperaccumulator	^[29]
Pteris umbrosa	Jungle brake fern	500	6200–7600 mg/kg		Hyperaccumulator	^[29]
Pteris vittata	Chinese brake fern		57.1 ± 9%		Hyperaccumulator	^[30]
Pteris umbrosa	Jungle brake fern		56.8 ± 4.8%		Hyperaccumulator	^[30]
Cassia alata	Ringworm bush	1587	ca. 25 mg/kg (shoots)	ca. 130 mg/kg (roots)	Phytostabiliser	^[13]
Pityrogramma calomelanos	Silver fern	135–510	5130–5610 mg/kg (young fronds) 2760–8000 mg/kg (old fronds)	88–370	Hyperaccumulator	^[33]
Pityrogramma calomelanos	Silver fern	20–8800	3820–8350 mg/kg (frond)	88–370 mg/kg (root)	Hyperaccumulator	^[34]
Pteris vittata	Chinese brake fern	20–8800	4240–6030 mg/kg (frond)	103–330 mg/kg (root)	Hyperaccumulator	^[34]
Athyrium filix-femina	Lady fern	74 ± 20.1	1.95 mg/kg (leaves)	7.56 mg/kg (roots)	Metallophyte	^[35]
Geranium robertianum	Herb Robert	74 ± 20.1	1.95 mg/kg (leaves + stems)	18.3 mg/kg (roots)	Metallophyte	^[35]
Rhizomnium punctatum	Dotted thyme-moss	218 ± 53.8	4.66 mg/kg (whole plant)		Metallophyte	^[35]

3. Co-Application of Soil Amendments

As discussed, plants can exhibit phytotoxicity and commonly require soil amendments to alleviate toxic conditions and improve plant growth and phytoremediation mechanisms ^[32]^[36]. Soil amendments also improve physical characteristics such as water holding capacity, permeability, infiltration, drainage, aeration, soil structure, and the microbial community ^[36]^[37]. There are a variety of inorganic and organic soil amendments that have been studied to enhance plant growth and element bioavailability (Table 2).

3.1. Organic Amendments

A study by Huang et al. ^[13] investigated phytostabilisation and the impacts of three different biochar amendments on mine tailings. Biochar is a carbonaceous material derived from pyrolysis methods that involve heating organic material (in a range of 500–900 °C in a limited oxygen environment) ^[13]^[38]^[39]. The organic matter used to produce biochar is typically biomass, sewage sludge, agricultural waste, and compost ^[13]^[39]. Biochar has a porous structure, high surface area, and other physiochemical properties that improve soil characteristics such as carbon and water holding capacity (Table 2) ^[39]. The mine tailings had high As and Pb concentrations (1587.1 and 3642.7 mg/kg, respectively), a pH of 6.5, and were low in nutrients such as total carbon (0.3%) and total nitrogen (0.01%) ^[13]. A greenhouse pot experiment was implemented over 100 days involving 10 treatments, three biochar types (Hibiscus cannabinus core, sewage sludge, and chicken manure) at three biochar concentrations (0.4%, 1%, and 3% w/w) and one control (mine tailings only) ^[13]. The results showed that overall plant shoots and roots increased in biomass and As shoot concentrations decreased by 54.9–77.5% ^[13]. Sewage sludge biochar applied at 3% concentration provided the best results for plant growth ^[13]. Plant height was 12.1 cm, and root length was 370.9 cm, compared to the control values of 8.1 cm and 112.4 cm for plant height and root length, respectively ^[13]. Sewage sludge biochar did not immobilise As; further focus is needed on the potential As release during increased biochar application rates ^[13]. Arsenic leaching as a result of organic soil amendments was also reported by Beesley et al. ^[40]. Beesley et al. ^[40] investigated mine waste soil amended with compost and biochar then monitored the effects on pore water and aqueous soil extracts. It was reported that As leaching was a concern and potential risk for further environmental pollution ^[40]. Arsenic leaching into pore water was >2500 µg 1⁻¹ (World Health Organisation drinking water standard is 10 µg 1⁻¹) and was found to be related to pH, dissolved organic carbon, and soluble P ^[40]. However, arsenic toxicity was reduced most effectively when compost and biochar were combined, and soil nutrients increased ^[40]. A study by Simiele et al. ^[41] researched the effects of combined biochar and iron-sulphate-assisted phytoremediation. Simiele et al. ^[41] also reported an increase in soil nutrients such as increased pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and reduced metal(loid) concentrations in soil pore water. However, there was no improvement in plant growth, which is essential for phytoremediation projects. Beesley et al. ^[40] concluded that field trials to further understand As leaching and effects of organic amendments are needed. Biochar should be investigated further to assess As leaching and its ability to improve soil properties and plant growth.

3.2. Phosphate and Organic Amendments

Barbafieri et al. ^[32] investigated the use of phosphate as a soil amendment to improve phytoextraction using crop species suited to the Mediterranean climate and P. vittata. Their results showed that phosphate was successful at improving As bioaccumulation, and plants showed no signs of phytotoxicity; however, biomass did not increase. A similar study by Niazi et al. ^[42] reported that phosphate increased As phytoextraction and improved biomass for Brassica species under spiked As concentrations of 0–75 mg/kg. Barbafieri et al. ^[32] used soil collected from the field, an industrial area, with average As concentrations of 25–2595 mg/kg as a result of chemical plant productions. These As concentrations are considerably higher than the Niazi et al. ^[42] study, and the use of As-rich field soil (non-spiked soil) introduced other soil As characteristics (e.g., speciation) that influence mobility and toxicity. For example, in Canada at Giant Mine, the dominant As species present was arsenic trioxide, which is the most bioavailable form of As for humans ^[20]^[43]. Additionally, a study by Cao et al. ^[44] investigated As uptake by P. vittata with chromated-copper-arsenate (CCA)-contaminated soil (135 mg/kg) and As-spiked soil (126 mg/kg). The study included soil amendments, which were phosphate rock, municipal solid waste, and biosolid compost. Cao et al. ^[44] stated that phosphate enhanced As bioaccumulation and removed 8.27% of As from CCA soil and 14.4% from the spiked soil. Compost amendment improved As bioaccumulation in CCA soil but decreased in spiked soil, and it was concluded that soil characteristics influenced the compost treatment ^[44]. Phosphate and compost treatment increased As leaching, but this was aided by P. vittata As uptake. A study by Caille et al. ^[45] investigated the use of co-application of phosphate and lime for As bioaccumulation, also using P. vittata. This study used soil collected from mining and smelting locations in Cornwall, England, and reported that there was no increase in As bioaccumulation. It was also stated that natural As in legacy mine waste soils may not be as easily bioavailable as other sources of As, e.g., industry, CCA, and spiked, because of soil properties. There is a need to assess phytoremediation techniques and soil amendments using mine waste soil collected from the field as results vary depending on the As source and soil characteristics.

3.3. Lime and Organic Amendments

Hydrated lime and organic amendments have been studied to assist phytoremediation projects (Table 1). A study by Clemente et al. ^[46] conducted a field experiment 10 km from the Aznalcóllar mine in Spain to assess two crops of Brassica juncea and soil amendments for phytoremediation. Field plots were initially fertilised with inorganic fertiliser (8:15:15 N:P:K). Seeds were planted and after the first crop, and the treatments were applied. Treatments included sugar beet lime and organic amendments including fresh cow manure and olive leaves/olive mill-waste mature compost. For the second crop, soils with a pH < 5 were limed before amendments were applied. It was identified that pH affected bioavailability and bioaccumulation over time as well as plant growth and biomass production. Organic matter improved plant survival and growth because soil conditions were enhanced. Manure treatment had the largest biomass production; however, it introduced weeds in the second crop. Compost treatment did not introduce weeds but was less effective at improving biomass and metal uptake. The soil amendments olive mill-waste compost and lime were also studied by Pardo et al. ^[47]. Pardo et al. ^[47] implemented a 2.5-year field phytostabilisation experiment using Atriplex halimus and soil amendments, mature olive mill-waste compost, pig slurry, and hydrated lime. Plants assisted with organic amendments ameliorated essential soil nutrients, which improved the soil microbial community. For example, soil enzyme activities, β-glucosidase, urease, and arylsulphatase significantly increased when compost and pig slurry were applied compared to the control. Additionally, dehydrogenase activity and basal respiration also significantly increased for compost and pig slurry amendments compared to the controls. Overall, soil enzyme activity improved with the combination of plant and soil amendment and stimulated the soil microbial community. Phytostabilisation was achieved, ecotoxicity decreased, and water-soluble organic C increased notably with the compost and plant combination. Organic matter was lower in pig slurry, but the plant compensated for organic matter with leaf litter and plant roots. However, the lime treatment did not benefit from plant features because plants did not grow well. Organic amendments improved water-soluble N, and only compost enhanced available P. Water-soluble N was greater in limed soils, which may be a result of poor plant and microbial growth because N was mainly inorganic N and highly bioavailable. Additionally, Pardo et al. ^[47] stated that the compost and plant treatment was most effective at decreasing ecotoxicity. A similar study by Clemente et al. ^[37] also used A. halimus and soil amendment compost, pig slurry, and hydrated lime for a field phytoremediation project in a semi-arid mine waste location at El Llano del Beal, Cartagena, Spain. Clemente et al. ^[37] also reported that the compost treatment had soil-ameliorating capabilities by improving organic matter, total organic carbon, and soil microbial biomass -C and -N. Plant growth was enhanced by the hydrated lime by 58%, compost by 79% and pig slurry by 89%. Organic soil amendments outperformed the hydrated lime for plant growth, which is also supported by Pardo et al. ^[47] and Clemente et al. ^[46] who reported poor plant growth in lime treatments and greater biomass production in manure treatments, respectively. Compost as a soil amendment to assist phytoremediation has proven to enhance soil conditions, organic matter, the microbial community, and plant growth and avoid the input of weeds.

Table 2. Phytoremediation combined with organic and/or inorganic soil amendments.

Treatment	Soil Amendment	Plant	Soil As (mg/kg)	Advantages	Disadvantages	Reference
Organic	Hibiscus cannabinus core biochar (HB), sewage sludge biochar (SB) and chicken manure biochar (MB) (500 °C 3 h).	Cassia alata	1587	Plant height and root length increased for SB 3%. SB immobilised elements. HB significantly improved total C. Arsenic availability increased with SB at 3%.	Conflicting results for As mobility and solubility as well as speciation may play a role.	^[13]
Organic	Compost (olive mill-waste + 10% cow manure) Biochar (Orchard prunings pyrolysed at 500 °C		7490	Soil + compost + biochar treatment had largest decrease in ecotoxicity using the Microtox method. Soil nutrients and fertility improved.	As leaching Unknown long-term effects of increased As bioavailability.	^[40]
Inorganic and organic	Hardwood biochar (500 °C, 3 h), iron sulphate	Populus Euramericana clone I45/51, Salix pupurea, Salix vimnalis	297 ± 30	Biochar + iron sulphate increased pH, EC, reduced metal(loid) concentrations in soil pore water.	Biochar + iron sulphate had no effect on plant growth.	^[41]
Inorganic	Phosphate	Lupinus albus, Helianthus annuus, Brassica juncea, Pteris vittata	25–2595	No signs of phytotoxicity e.g., yellowing of leaves. Increased As bioaccumulation in roots and shoots. P. vittata and H. annuus were most successful at phytoextraction.	No significant change in biomass growth.	^[32]
Inorganic	Phosphate	Brassica napus, Brassica juncea	0–75	As concentrations increased in shoots. Biomass increased. B. napus was most successful at As uptake. Improved physical and photosynthetic characteristics.	Results varied between plants.	^[42]
Inorganic and organic	Phosphate rock, municipal solid waste and biosolid compost	Pteris vittata	135 and 126	Phosphate and compost increased As bioaccumulation. Plant mitigated leaching.	Field soil and spiked soil had different results.	^[44]
Inorganic	Phosphate and lime	Pteris vittata	361	Lime balanced soil pH after phosphate application.	Phosphate and lime had no significant effect on As bioaccumulation.	^[45]
Inorganic and organic	Fresh cow manure. Olive leaves/olive mill-waste mature compost. Sugar beet lime.	Brassica juncea	86–634	Manure had highest plant biomass production. Organic matter improved plant survival, growth, and soil conditions.	Manure introduced weeds. As uptake was low, Brassica juncea was not suited for phytoextraction	^[46]
Inorganic and organic	Mature olive mill-waste compost Pig slurry Hydrated lime	Atriplex halimus	664 ± 28	Organic amendments with plants provided soil with essential nutrients, which improved the soil microbial community and were effective at phytostabilisation. Ecotoxicity decreased most notably with compost + plant. Limed soil had highest dissolved N in pore water, mainly inorganic N.	Plants did not grow well in lime amendment.	^[47]
Inorganic and organic	Compost, pig slurry (PS), hydrated lime (HL).	Atriplex halimus	664 ± 28	Compost improved organic matter, total organic carbon, and soil microbial biomass -C and -N. Plant growth improved with amendments HL (59%), compost (79%) and PS (89%). As leaf concentrations decreased = phytostabilisation.	HL did not significantly decrease bioaccumulation of As in fruits compared to organic amendments after 12 months	^[37]

References

Álvarez-Ayuso, E. Stabilization and Encapsulation of Arsenic-/Antimony-Bearing Mine Waste: Overview and Outlook of Existing Techniques. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 52, 3720–3752.
Zhou, Q.; Teng, Y.; Liu, Y. A Study on Soil-Environmental Quality Criteria and Standards of Arsenic. Appl. Geochem. 2017, 77, 158–166.
Anawar, H.M.; Akter, F.; Solaiman, Z.M.; Strezov, V. Biochar: An Emerging Panacea for Remediation of Soil Contaminants from Mining, Industry and Sewage Wastes. Pedosphere 2015, 25, 654–665.
Lottermoser, B.G. Tailings. In Mine Wastes; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2010; pp. 205–241.
National Environment Protection Measure (Assessment of Site Contamination). Schedule B1 Guideline Investigation Levels Soil and Groundwater; The National Environment Protection Council: Canberra, Australia, 2011.
Banwart, S. Save Our Soils. Nature 2011, 474, 151–152.
Lehmann, J.; Kleber, M. The Contentious Nature of Soil Organic Matter. Nature 2015, 528, 60–68.
Lehmann, J.; Hansel, C.M.; Kaiser, C.; Kleber, M.; Maher, K.; Manzoni, S.; Nunan, N.; Reichstein, M.; Schimel, J.P.; Torn, M.S.; et al. Persistence of Soil Organic Carbon Caused by Functional Complexity. Nat. Geosci. 2020, 13, 529–534.
Stefanowicz, A.M.; Kapusta, P.; Szarek-Łukaszewska, G.; Grodzińska, K.; Niklińska, M.; Vogt, R.D. Soil Fertility and Plant Diversity Enhance Microbial Performance in Metal-Polluted Soils. Sci. Total Environ. 2012, 439, 211–219.
Singh, P.; Ghosh, A.K.; Kumar, S.; Kumar, M.; Sinha, P.K. Influence of Input Litter Quality and Quantity on Carbon Storage in Post-Mining Forest Soil after 14 Years of Reclamation. Ecol. Eng. 2022, 178, 106575.
Singh, P.; Ghosh, A.K.; Kumar, S.; Jat, S.L.; Seema, K.; Pradhan, S.N.; Kumar, M. A Molecular and Spectroscopic Approach to Reclamation of Coal Mine Soil Using Tree Species: A Case Study of Gevra Mining Area, Korba, India. J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 2022, 22, 2205–2220.
Singh, P.; Ghosh, A.K.; Kumar, S. The Role of Input Litter Quality and Quantity on Soil Organic Matter Formation and Sequestration in Rehabilitated Mine Soil. Indian For. 2022, 148, 280.
Huang, L.; Li, Y.; Zhao, M.; Chao, Y.; Qiu, R.; Yang, Y.; Wang, S. Potential of Cassia Alata L. Coupled with Biochar for Heavy Metal Stabilization in Multi-Metal Mine Tailings. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health 2018, 15, 494.
Ma, L.Q.; Komar, K.M.; Tu, C.; Zhang, W.; Cai, Y.; Kennelley, E.D. A Fern That Hyperaccumulates Arsenic. Nature 2001, 409, 579.
Muehe, E.M.; Wang, T.; Kerl, C.F.; Planer-Friedrich, B.; Fendorf, S. Rice Production Threatened by Coupled Stresses of Climate and Soil Arsenic. Nat. Commun. 2019, 10, 4985.
Datta, R.; Quispe, M.A.; Sarkar, D. Greenhouse Study on the Phytoremediation Potential of Vetiver Grass, Chrysopogon zizanioides L., in Arsenic-Contaminated Soils. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2011, 86, 124–128.
Fu, W.; Huang, K.; Cai, H.-H.; Li, J.; Zhai, D.-L.; Dai, Z.-C.; Du, D.-L. Exploring the Potential of Naturalized Plants for Phytoremediation of Heavy Metal Contamination. Int. J. Environ. Res. 2017, 11, 515–521.
Klaber, N.S.; Barker, A.V. Accumulation of Phosphorus and Arsenic in Two Perennial Grasses for Soil Remediation. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 2014, 45, 810–818.
Warren, G.P.; Alloway, B.J.; Lepp, N.W.; Singh, B.; Bochereau, F.J.M.; Penny, C. Field Trials to Assess the Uptake of Arsenic by Vegetables from Contaminated Soils and Soil Remediation with Iron Oxides. Sci. Total Environ. 2003, 311, 19–33.
Bromstad, M.J.; Wrye, L.A.; Jamieson, H.E. The Characterization, Mobility, and Persistence of Roaster-Derived Arsenic in Soils at Giant Mine, NWT. Appl. Geochem. 2017, 82, 102–118.
Jamieson, H.E.; Walker, S.R.; Parsons, M.B. Mineralogical Characterization of Mine Waste. Appl. Geochem. 2015, 57, 85–105.
Bradham, K.D.; Diamond, G.L.; Burgess, M.; Juhasz, A.; Klotzbach, J.M.; Maddaloni, M.; Nelson, C.; Scheckel, K.; Serda, S.M.; Stifelman, M.; et al. In Vivo and in Vitro Methods for Evaluating Soil Arsenic Bioavailability: Relevant to Human Health Risk Assessment. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part B 2018, 21, 83–114.
DeSisto, S.L.; Jamieson, H.E.; Parsons, M.B. Subsurface Variations in Arsenic Mineralogy and Geochemistry Following Long-Term Weathering of Gold Mine Tailings. Appl. Geochem. 2016, 73, 81–97.
Koller, C.E.; Patrick, J.W.; Rose, R.J.; Offler, C.E.; MacFarlane, G.R. Pteris umbrosa R. Br. as an Arsenic Hyperaccumulator: Accumulation, Partitioning and Comparison with the Established as Hyperaccumulator Pteris vittata. Chemosphere 2007, 66, 1256–1263.
Bondada, B.R.; Ma, L.Q. Tolerance of Heavy Metals in Vascular Plants: Arsenic Hyperaccumulation by Chinese Brake Fern (Pteris vittata L.). In Pteridology in the New Millennium; Springer Netherlands: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2003; pp. 397–420.
Corzo Remigio, A.; Chaney, R.L.; Baker, A.J.M.; Edraki, M.; Erskine, P.D.; Echevarria, G.; Van Der Ent, A. Phytoextraction of High Value Elements and Contaminants from Mining and Mineral Wastes: Opportunities and Limitations. Plant Soil 2020, 449, 11–37.
García-Salgado, S.; García-Casillas, D.; Quijano-Nieto, M.A.; Bonilla-Simón, M.M. Arsenic and Heavy Metal Uptake and Accumulation in Native Plant Species from Soils Polluted by Mining Activities. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2012, 223, 559–572.
Srivastava, M.; Ma, L.Q.; Santos, J.A.G. Three New Arsenic Hyperaccumulating Ferns. Sci. Total Environ. 2006, 364, 24–31.
Zhao, F.J.; Dunham, S.J.; McGrath, S.P. Arsenic Hyperaccumulation by Different Fern Species. New Phytol. 2002, 156, 27–31.
Koller, C.E.; Patrick, J.W.; Rose, R.J.; Offler, C.E.; MacFarlane, G.R. Arsenic and Heavy Metal Accumulation by Pteris vittata L. and P. umbrosa R. Br. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2008, 80, 128–133.
Chao, Y.-S.; Rouhan, G.; Amoroso, V.B.; Chiou, W.-L. Molecular Phylogeny and Biogeography of the Fern Genus Pteris (Pteridaceae). Ann. Bot. 2014, 114, 109–124.
Barbafieri, M.; Pedron, F.; Petruzzelli, G.; Rosellini, I.; Franchi, E.; Bagatin, R.; Vocciante, M. Assisted Phytoremediation of a Multi-Contaminated Soil: Investigation on Arsenic and Lead Combined Mobilization and Removal. J. Environ. Manag. 2017, 203, 316–329.
Francesconi, K.; Visoottiviseth, P.; Sridokchan, W.; Goessler, W. Arsenic Species in an Arsenic Hyperaccumulating Fern, Pityrogramma Calomelanos: A Potential Phytoremediator of Arsenic-Contaminated Soils. Sci. Total Environ. 2002, 284, 27–35.
Visoottiviseth, P.; Francesconi, K.; Sridokchan, W. The Potential of Thai Indigenous Plant Species for the Phytoremediation of Arsenic Contaminated Land. Environ. Pollut. 2002, 118, 453–461.
Madejón, P.; Lepp, N.W. Arsenic in Soils and Plants of Woodland Regenerated on an Arsenic-Contaminated Substrate: A Sustainable Natural Remediation? Sci. Total Environ. 2007, 379, 256–262.
Makarova, A.; Nikulina, E.; Avdeenkova, T.; Pishaeva, K. The Improved Phytoextraction of Heavy Metals and the Growth of Trifolium repens L.: The Role of K2HEDP and Plant Growth Regulators Alone and in Combination. Sustainability 2021, 13, 2432.
Clemente, R.; Walker, D.J.; Pardo, T.; Martínez-Fernández, D.; Bernal, M.P. The Use of a Halophytic Plant Species and Organic Amendments for the Remediation of a Trace Elements-Contaminated Soil under Semi-Arid Conditions. J. Hazard. Mater. 2012, 223–224, 63–71.
Dike, C.C.; Hakeem, I.G.; Rani, A.; Surapaneni, A.; Khudur, L.; Shah, K.; Ball, A.S. The Co-Application of Biochar with Bioremediation for the Removal of Petroleum Hydrocarbons from Contaminated Soil. Sci. Total Environ. 2022, 849, 157753.
Gong, X.; Huang, D.; Liu, Y.; Zeng, G.; Chen, S.; Wang, R.; Xu, P.; Cheng, M.; Zhang, C.; Xue, W. Biochar Facilitated the Phytoremediation of Cadmium Contaminated Sediments: Metal Behavior, Plant Toxicity, and Microbial Activity. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 666, 1126–1133.
Beesley, L.; Inneh, O.S.; Norton, G.J.; Moreno-Jimenez, E.; Pardo, T.; Clemente, R.; Dawson, J.J.C. Assessing the Influence of Compost and Biochar Amendments on the Mobility and Toxicity of Metals and Arsenic in a Naturally Contaminated Mine Soil. Environ. Pollut. 2014, 186, 195–202.
Simiele, M.; Lebrun, M.; Miard, F.; Trupiano, D.; Poupart, P.; Forestier, O.; Scippa, G.S.; Bourgerie, S.; Morabito, D. Assisted Phytoremediation of a Former Mine Soil Using Biochar and Iron Sulphate: Effects on As Soil Immobilization and Accumulation in Three Salicaceae Species. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 710, 136203.
Niazi, N.K.; Bibi, I.; Fatimah, A.; Shahid, M.; Javed, M.T.; Wang, H.; Ok, Y.S.; Bashir, S.; Murtaza, B.; Saqib, Z.A.; et al. Phosphate-Assisted Phytoremediation of Arsenic by Brassica napus and Brassica juncea: Morphological and Physiological Response. Int. J. Phytoremediation 2017, 19, 670–678.
Walker, S.R.; Jamieson, H.E.; Lanzirotti, A.; Andrade, C.F.; Hall, G.E.M. The Speciation of Arsenic in Iron Oxides in Mine Wastes from the Giant Gold Mine, N.W.T.: Application of Synchrotron Micro-XRD and Micro-XANES at the Grain Scale. Can. Mineral. 2005, 43, 1205–1224.
Cao, X.; Ma, L.Q.; Shiralipour, A. Effects of Compost and Phosphate Amendments on Arsenic Mobility in Soils and Arsenic Uptake by the Hyperaccumulator, Pteris vittata L. Environ. Pollut. 2003, 126, 157–167.
Caille, N.; Swanwick, S.; Zhao, F.J.; McGrath, S.P. Arsenic Hyperaccumulation by Pteris vittata from Arsenic Contaminated Soils and the Effect of Liming and Phosphate Fertilisation. Environ. Pollut. 2004, 132, 113–120.
Clemente, R.; Walker, D.J.; Bernal, M.P. Uptake of Heavy Metals and As by Brassica Juncea Grown in a Contaminated Soil in Aznalcóllar (Spain): The Effect of Soil Amendments. Environ. Pollut. 2005, 138, 46–58.
Pardo, T.; Clemente, R.; Epelde, L.; Garbisu, C.; Bernal, M.P. Evaluation of the Phytostabilisation Efficiency in a Trace Elements Contaminated Soil Using Soil Health Indicators. J. Hazard. Mater. 2014, 268, 68–76.

© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.

Upload a video for this entry

Information

Subjects: Environmental Sciences

Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :

Julie A. Besedin

Leadin S. Khudur

Pacian Netherway

Andrew S. Ball

View Times: 662

Update Date: 12 Oct 2023

Table of Contents

Video Upload Options

Confirm