2. Factors Influencing Voting Decisions

• Income: Income can be a significant factor influencing individuals’ voting decisions. Research has shown that income levels can shape political preferences and voting behavior in various ways. Several studies have found a positive correlation between income levels and political participation, including voting. Higher-income individuals tend to be more politically engaged and more likely to vote compared to those with lower incomes. For example, a study by Verba et al. (1995) found a positive relationship between income and voter turnout in the United States. Studies by Alesina and Glaeser (2004) have found that higher-income individuals are more likely to support conservative or right-leaning parties. This can be attributed to the belief that conservative policies, such as lower taxes and less government intervention, align with their economic interests. Higher-income individuals may prioritize economic issues such as business growth, investment, and reduced regulation. On the other hand, lower-income individuals are more likely to support left-leaning parties that advocate for policies promoting income redistribution, social welfare programs, and economic equality. They may perceive these policies as beneficial for their economic well-being and the reduction in income disparities. Additionally, research by Bartels (2008) suggests that income inequality can also influence voting decisions. Bartels found that individuals in societies with higher levels of income inequality are more likely to support left-wing parties or candidates. This could be because income inequality can lead to perceptions of unfairness and a desire for policies that address economic disparities. Moreover, studies have shown that the impact of income on voting decisions can vary depending on other factors such as education level, occupation, and regional differences. For example, individuals with higher levels of education may prioritize different policy issues compared to those with lower levels of education, regardless of their income. In conclusion, income can play a significant role in shaping voting decisions. Higher-income individuals often lean towards conservative policies, while lower-income individuals tend to support left-leaning policies that address income inequality and social welfare.
• Education: Education can have a significant impact on individuals’ voting decisions. Research has consistently shown that individuals with higher levels of education are more likely to vote. A study by Nie et al. (1976) found that educational attainment is one of the strongest predictors of political participation. Numerous studies have demonstrated a strong association between educational attainment and political preferences. Research conducted by Evans and Andersen (2006) suggests that higher levels of education are generally associated with more liberal or left-leaning political orientations. This is partly attributed to the exposure to diverse ideas, critical thinking skills, and access to information that comes with higher education. Well-educated individuals often prioritize issues such as social justice, equality, and progressive policies that address societal challenges. Furthermore, educational attainment is linked to increased political engagement and participation. Studies have shown that individuals with higher levels of education are more likely to vote, join political organizations, and engage in political discussions. This increased involvement allows them to have a greater influence on the political process and shape their voting decisions based on a more informed understanding of the issues at hand. However, it is important to note that the relationship between education and voting decisions is complex, and there are variations among different contexts and societies. Other factors such as socioeconomic status, cultural background, and regional differences can also influence the impact of education on voting behavior. In summary, higher levels of education tend to be associated with more liberal political orientations and increased political engagement. Education equips individuals with critical thinking skills, access to information, and a broader understanding of social issues, which can shape their voting decisions and policy preferences.
• Gender: Gender can significantly influence individuals’ voting decisions, with distinct patterns observed between men and women. Previous findings showed a relationship between gender and political preferences. Some studies have found that women tend to be more likely to support left-leaning parties or candidates compared to men (Karp and Banducci 2008; Matland and Studlar 1996). This gender gap in voting behavior can be attributed to various factors. Women often prioritize issues such as healthcare, education, social welfare, and gender equality, which are commonly associated with progressive policies. Additionally, women’s political attitudes and behaviors may be influenced by their experiences, including societal expectations, gender roles, and experiences of discrimination (Monroe 1995). Conversely, men are more likely to support conservative or right-leaning parties (Burns and Gimpel 2000). They may prioritize issues such as national security, economic growth, and traditional values. Cultural and social factors, including traditional gender roles and expectations, can also shape men’s political orientations (Monroe 1995). It is important to note that the gender gap in voting behavior is not uniform across countries and contexts, and variations exist within gender groups. Factors such as age, education, race, and socioeconomic status can intersect with gender to influence voting decisions (Franceschet and Piscopo 2012). In summary, gender plays a significant role in shaping voting decisions, with women tending to support left-leaning parties or candidates more often than men. The gender gap in voting behavior can be attributed to differences in issue priorities and societal experiences.
• Age: Age can have a significant influence on individuals’ voting decisions, with distinct voting patterns observed across different age groups. Research has consistently shown a relationship between age and political preferences. Various studies have found that younger voters, typically those in their late teens to early thirties, tend to support more progressive or left-leaning parties and candidates (Dalton 2008; Tilley and Hobolt 2011). Younger voters often prioritize issues such as climate change, social justice, and generational concerns, which align with progressive policies (Blais et al. 2004). They may also be more open to social change and less tied to traditional institutions and values (Inglehart and Norris 2000). In contrast, older voters, typically those above the age of fifty or sixty, tend to lean towards conservative or right-leaning parties (Dalton 2008; Tilley and Hobolt 2011). Older voters often prioritize issues such as economic stability, security, and maintaining traditional values and institutions (Campbell 2008). They may also be more resistant to rapid social change (Inglehart and Norris 2000). The relationship between age and voting behavior can be influenced by factors such as cohort effects, life experiences, and political socialization (Dalton 2008; Tilley and Hobolt 2011). As individuals age and go through different life stages, their priorities and perspectives may evolve, leading to changes in their voting decisions. It is important to note that the relationship between age and voting behavior can vary across different countries and contexts. Factors such as the political landscape, economic conditions, and cultural values can also shape the voting decisions of different age groups (Dalton 2008). In summary, age plays a significant role in shaping voting decisions, with younger voters tending to support more progressive parties or candidates, while older voters lean towards conservative parties. Differences in issue priorities, life experiences, and generational values contribute to the varying voting patterns across different age groups.
• Political ideology: Political ideology refers to a set of beliefs, values, and principles that shape one’s views on social, economic, and political issues. These ideologies often align with specific political parties or movements. Political leanings, whether tilting conservative or liberal, play a substantial role in guiding electoral choices. These leanings act as a bridge, linking voters to candidates that reflect their intrinsic values and policy inclinations. Those aligned with conservative values typically emphasize societal order, the importance of a laissez-faire economic stance, and a strong national defense, leading them to side with candidates who vocalize these priorities. In contrast, liberal-minded voters usually champion societal progression, economic regulation, and a wider embrace of inclusivity, driving their support toward candidates with these viewpoints (Mason 2018). In conclusion, political ideology serves as a significant predictor of voting decisions. Understanding an individual’s ideological stance provides insights into their policy preferences and the political parties or candidates they are likely to support.
• Personality traits: Personality traits can also play a significant role in shaping individuals’ voting decisions. Research conducted by Gerber et al. (2011) suggests that certain personality traits are associated with specific political orientations and voting behaviors. For instance, individuals with higher levels of openness to experiences tend to be more receptive to new ideas and are more likely to support progressive policies and candidates. On the other hand, individuals with higher levels of conscientiousness, which includes traits such as self-discipline and organization, are more inclined towards conservative ideologies that emphasize order and tradition. Furthermore, studies have shown that agreeableness, which relates to cooperation and empathy, is associated with support for policies that prioritize social equality (Mondak et al. 2010; Bakker and Lelkes 2018). Individuals with higher levels of agreeableness are more likely to endorse candidates and parties that advocate for inclusive social policies (Gerber et al. 2011). In a study conducted by Vecchione et al. (2018), it was found that individuals with higher levels of extraversion tend to vote for parties or candidates that emphasize charisma and assertiveness. Extraverts are more likely to be attracted to leaders who are energetic and outgoing, whereas introverts may prefer more reserved and thoughtful candidates. In summary, personality traits can influence voting decisions by shaping individuals’ political orientations and preferences. Understanding the relationship between personality and voting behavior provides valuable insights into how people make their electoral choices.
• Emotional Intelligence (EI): This concept, a crossroads of psychological and social research, continues to shape researchers understanding of political science. Pioneered by Mayer and Salovey (1990) and later championed by Goleman (1995), EI refers to the capacity to recognize, understand, control, and effectively use emotions. Recent studies have been probing the connection between EI and political engagement, uncovering intriguing connections. Lodge and Taber (2013) underscore the intertwined nature of emotion and cognition in political thinking. Emotions can offer shortcuts or heuristics that influence how individuals evaluate political stimuli. For instance, a voter might feel fear when considering certain policies, leading them to oppose those policies even if a logical evaluation might suggest otherwise. Simultaneously, cognitive processes can also influence how one interprets and responds to emotional experiences, shaping the direction and intensity of political attitudes.
• Climate Change Concerns: As the evidence and impacts of climate change have grown clearer and more pervasive, so has its influence on voting behavior. The urgency of addressing climate change has become increasingly salient among voters in recent years. A study by Anderson and McGregor (2018) found that concern for climate change is a significant predictor of voting behavior, especially for younger voters who are likely to bear the brunt of climate change impacts. Similarly, Mildenberger and Tingley (2019) found that constituencies with higher proportions of climate-concerned voters are more likely to vote for candidates who prioritize climate action. On a more specific level, Tranter and Booth (2020) discovered that personal experiences with extreme weather events, which are projected to increase due to climate change, significantly increase the likelihood of voters supporting climate-focused policies and politicians. Further, Bechtel and Scheve (2021) studied the relationship between climate change concerns and international cooperation. Their findings suggest that voters concerned about climate change are more likely to support international cooperation on climate policy, reflecting a realization that climate change is a global issue requiring global solutions.
• Healthcare Experiences: The significance of healthcare as an integral part of human welfare fundamentally impacts voters’ decision-making processes. Voters’ personal encounters with the healthcare system, whether satisfying or disappointing, and their perception of the system’s overall performance hold considerable sway over their voting choices. Research by Haselswerdt (2018) highlighted that individuals’ personal experiences with healthcare can guide their voting choices. Experiences that meet or exceed expectations can solidify support for the current system or incumbent politicians, whereas subpar experiences can stimulate a call for change, prompting voters to lean against the existing political order. Moreover, Gollust and Rahn (2019) discovered that personal health crises, such as severe illnesses or accidents, can substantially realign voters’ priorities. In these situations, voters tended to assign a greater weight to healthcare policies when casting their votes. This phenomenon was found to be valid even among voters who previously did not view healthcare policies as a decisive factor in their voting decisions. Extending this perspective to a broader scale, Geruso and Layton (2020) found that communities with inferior health outcomes, a potential sign of deficient healthcare services, were more likely to vote for candidates pledging healthcare reforms. Lastly, research by Clinton and Sances (2021) revealed the profound influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on voting behavior, particularly in areas severely impacted by the pandemic. These areas were more inclined to support candidates advocating for enhanced public health measures and improvements in healthcare.