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Delaney, E.L.; Leahy, P.G.; Mckinley, J.M.; Gentry, T.R.; Nagle, A.J.; Elberling, J.; Bank, L.C. Reuse of Wind Turbine Blades. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/48547 (accessed on 18 November 2024).
Delaney EL, Leahy PG, Mckinley JM, Gentry TR, Nagle AJ, Elberling J, et al. Reuse of Wind Turbine Blades. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/48547. Accessed November 18, 2024.
Delaney, Emma L., Paul G. Leahy, Jennifer M. Mckinley, T. Russell Gentry, Angela J. Nagle, Jeffrey Elberling, Lawrence C. Bank. "Reuse of Wind Turbine Blades" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/48547 (accessed November 18, 2024).
Delaney, E.L., Leahy, P.G., Mckinley, J.M., Gentry, T.R., Nagle, A.J., Elberling, J., & Bank, L.C. (2023, August 28). Reuse of Wind Turbine Blades. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/48547
Delaney, Emma L., et al. "Reuse of Wind Turbine Blades." Encyclopedia. Web. 28 August, 2023.
Reuse of Wind Turbine Blades
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/su151612557

The sustainability of wind power has been called into question because there are currently no truly sustainable solutions to the problem of how to deal with the non-biodegradable fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite wind blades (sometimes referred to as “wings”) that capture the wind energy. The vast majority of wind blades that have reached their end-of-life (EOL) currently end up in landfills (either in full-sized pieces or pulverized into smaller pieces) or are incinerated. The problem has come to a head since many countries (especially in the EU) have outlawed, or expect to outlaw in the near future, one or both of these unsustainable and polluting disposal methods. An increasing number of studies have addressed the issue of EOL blade “waste”; however, these studies are generally of little use since they make predictions that do not account for the manner in which wind blades are decommissioned (from the time the decision is made to retire a turbine (or a wind farm) to the eventual disposal or recycling of all of its components).

end-of-life wind turbine blades uncertainties recycling reuse

1. Introduction

A typical wind turbine is designed for around 20 years of service meaning that many of the first-generation wind farms are at or approaching their end-of-life (EOL) stage. Approximately 85–90% of the wind turbine can be recycled including the tower, foundation and nacelle, which are made up of metals (steel, copper or aluminium) and concrete [1]. The blades, however, are composed of fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite materials (including glass and carbon fibres, thermosetting polymers, epoxies and structural adhesives), core materials (including balsa wood and/or polymeric foams) and some metals such as steel, aluminium or copper [2][3][4]. This mix of materials presents a challenge for recycling and is energy-intensive to separate [5]. Until recently, the EOL stage was not considered a problem or priority, which resulted in a lack of industry guidelines and standard procedures for the removal and disposal of these blades when decommissioned [6][7]. Recent media have highlighted the growing concern as many of the blades are being sent to landfill sites across the US [8]. Current EOL technologies that may be considered are reuse, repurposing, recycling, recovery, co-processing, incineration or landfilling [9]. Some of these EOL technologies also require a continuous supply of material and therefore may be hindered by fluctuations and insufficient supplies [10]. Accurately predicting EOL blade material becomes a crucial aspect for the planning and development of sustainable circular strategies as well as to motivate governments and policy makers to take action to prevent a large build-up of blade materials [11]. Some EOL technologies are capital-intensive, and a lack of certainty in EOL blade material flow represents an investment risk for commercial processors. A number of journal and magazine articles have addressed the issue of blade waste material; however, there are still many uncertainties associated with the EOL material forecasts [12].

2. Recycling Technologies and Potential Material That Can Be ‘Reused’

A circular economy strategy for blade management involves the reuse of blade material in a new product. Before a waste management strategy is needed, the blades should be used and reused for as long as possible [1]. The reuse potential of wind blades depends on what reuse strategy is chosen as methods yield different amounts of reusable material [13].
The different EOL options for wind turbines blades can be assessed in terms of sustainability using the waste hierarchy. At the top of the hierarchy is the lifetime extension or reuse of the turbines at another site. Next on the waste hierarchy is blade repurposing, which involves the reuse of full blades or large sections of the blade in new industrial or architectural applications. Some examples of repurposing applications include pedestrian bridges (e.g., Blade Bridge along the Midleton-Youghal Greenway in County Cork, Ireland) [14][15][16], power transmission lines [17], children’s playgrounds (e.g., Wikado playground, Rotterdam) [18], bicycle shelters (e.g., Aalborg Harbour) [19], affordable housing [20], among others [21]. Full blade repurposing implies that the entire blade will be reused in one or more applications and will therefore yield a 100% reuse potential. In this scenario, different sections of the blade (root, tip or mid-span) could be reused in different applications [22]. Several start-up companies have been launched to commercialize blade repurposing (e.g., Anmet (Szprotawa, Poland), BladeMade (Rotterdam, Netherlands), and BladeBridge (Cork, Ireland)). In some cases, if the second life application requires little processing, testing and fabrication, the blades may be cut and prepared directly on site before being transported to their new location [22].
After reuse and repurposing come material-scale recycling methods. There are three key types of recycling methods based on mechanical, chemical or thermal processes. Mechanical recycling refers to the shredding, cutting or grinding of the blade material, reducing it in size. This material may then be used as a replacement filler for concrete or as a reinforcement in plastics and other products [23][24][25]. Only 70–75% of the FRP composite material (15% is already discounted since it is not FRP material) can be reclaimed in this grinding process [26][27][28]. In some cases, the blades may be cut and shredded on site to reduce transportation costs [29]. This may be completed using a mobile waste grinding unit.
The fibres may be recovered through thermal or chemical recycling processes. In the case of thermal recycling such as pyrolysis or Fluidised Bed Combustion (FBC), high temperatures and pressures and vacuum may be used to recover the fibre materials. In the case of chemical recycling, the fibre materials are recovered from the resins using chemical solvents leaving behind the fibres. Co-processing, a form of material recycling, involves the substitution of blade material to replace virgin-mined materials such as clay, sand and limestone used to manufacture cement in a cement kiln. The polymeric materials in the blades provide energy recovery. This process yields a 50% recycling potential since only the fibre portion is recycled [12][30]. The energy recovered from burning the polymer is not considered material recycling however, it may contribute to life cycle assessment (LCA) benefits since many cement kilns are coal- or lignite-fired. While the European Composites Industry Association (EuCIA) encourages the co-processing of blade waste, not all countries have the ability to recycle using this method. There are very little data on which cement kilns are involved, except for a single Holicim plant in Lagerdorf, Germany and a single unidentified plant in Missouri, USA working in conjunction with Veolia [31][32]. This means that for companies in places such as the United Kingdom (UK) blades have to be transported, which can be expensive and energy-intensive [33].
Qureshi [34] provides an up-to-date review of the EOL options for FRP composite materials, including the strengths and limitations of each process in terms of energy demand and costs. The study shows that landfill and incineration are the most common and cheapest strategies for dealing with composite waste material; however, it is recognised that the composites industry needs to find more sustainable and circular practices such as reuse, repurposing and recycling. Beauson et al. [11] provide a review of the legislative and technical challenges of EOL blade management and composite material recycling. Coughlin et al. [5] and Fitzgerald et al. [35] provide estimates of costs and market potential of EOL processes. These factors further contribute to the uncertainties of EOL blade management. More recently, blade material passports [36] have been developed to document the material composition of specific blades with the aim to develop a standardised approach for blade disposal and aid potential recycling processes (e.g., Vestas (Arrhus, Denmark), Siemens Gamesa (Zamudio, Spain) and LM Wind Power (Kolding, Denmark)).

References

  1. Accelerating Wind Turbine Blade Circularity; WindEurope: Brussels, Belgium, 2020; Available online: https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/about-wind/reports/WindEurope-Accelerating-wind-turbine-blade-circularity.pdf (accessed on 24 June 2023).
  2. Fingersh, L.; Hand, M.; Laxson, A. Wind Turbine Design Cost and Scaling Model: Report No. NREL/TP-500-40566; National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), US Department of Energy: Golden, CO, USA, 2006.
  3. Nagle, A.J.; Delaney, E.L.; Bank, L.C.; Leahy, P.G. A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment between landfilling and Co-Processing of waste from decommissioned Irish wind turbine blades. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 277, 123321.
  4. Geiger, R.; Hannan, Y.; Travia, W.; Naboni, R.; Schlette, C. Composite wind turbine blade recycling—Value creation through Industry 4.0 to enable circularity in repurposing of composites. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2020, 942, 012016.
  5. Coughlin, D.; Stevenson, P.; Zimmerman, L.B. Wind Turbine Blade Recycling: Preliminary Assessment; Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI): Palo Alto, CA, USA, 2020; p. 3002017711. Available online: https://www.epri.com/research/products/000000003002017711 (accessed on 3 January 2023).
  6. Ortegon, K.; Nies, L.F.; Sutherland, J.W. Preparing for end of service life of wind turbines. J. Clean. Prod. 2013, 39, 191–199.
  7. Sakellariou, N. Current and potential decommissioning scenarios for end-of-life composite wind blades. Energy Syst. 2018, 9, 981–1023.
  8. Martin, C. Wind Turbine Blades Can’t Be Recycled, so They’re Piling up in Landfill. Bloomberg. Available online: https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2020-02-05/wind-turbine-blades-can-t-be-recycled-so-they-re-piling-up-in-landfills (accessed on 27 December 2022).
  9. Diez-Cañamero, B.; Manuel, F.; Mendoza, J. Circular economy performance and carbon footprint of wind turbine blade waste management alternatives. Waste Manag. 2023, 164, 94–105.
  10. Larsen, K. Recycling wind turbine blades. Renew. Energy Focus 2009, 9, 70–73.
  11. Beauson, J.; Laurent, A.; Rudolph, D.P.; Pagh Jensen, J. The complex end-of-life of wind turbine blades: A review of the European context. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2022, 155, 111847.
  12. Bank, L.C.; Delaney, E.L.; McKinley, J.M.; Gentry, R.; Leahy, P.G. Defining the landscape for wind blades at the end of service life. Compos. World 2021, 7, 6–9.
  13. Liu, P.; Barlow, C.Y. Wind turbine blade waste in 2050. Waste Manag. 2017, 62, 229–240.
  14. Beauson, J.; Brøndsted, P. Wind turbine blades: An end of life perspective. In MARE-WINT: New Materials and Reliability in Offshore Wind Turbine Technology; Ostachowicz, W., McGugan, M., Schröder-Hinrichs, J.-U., Luczak, M., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Berlin, Germany, 2016; pp. 421–432.
  15. Ruane, K.; Zhang, Z.; Nagle, A.; Huynh, A.; Alshannaq, A.; McDonald, A.; Leahy, P.; Soutsos, M.; McKinley, J.; Gentry, R.; et al. Material and Structural Characterization of a Wind Turbine Blade for Use as a Bridge Girder. Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board 2022, 2676, 354–362.
  16. Ruane, K.; Soutsos, M.; Huynh, A.; Zhang, Z.; Nagle, A.; McDonald, K.; Gentry, T.R.; Leahy, P.; Bank, L.C. Construction and Cost Analysis of BladeBridges Made from Decommissioned FRP Wind Turbine Blades. Sustainability 2023, 15, 3366.
  17. Alshannaq, A.A.; Bank, L.C.; Scott, D.W.; Gentry, R. A Decommissioned Wind Blade as a Second-Life Construction Material for a Transmission Pole. Constr. Mater. 2021, 1, 95–104.
  18. Blade Made Playgrounds; Superuse Studios: Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 2009; Available online: https://www.superuse-studios.com/projectplus/blade-made/ (accessed on 24 June 2023).
  19. Eilers, H. Wind Turbine Wing Gets New Life at the Port of Aalborg. Energy Supply. Available online: https://www.energy-supply.dk/article/view/699757/vindmollevinge_far_nyt_liv_pa_aalborg_havn (accessed on 20 July 2022).
  20. Bank, L.; Arias, F.; Yazdanbakhsh, A.; Gentry, T.; Al-Haddad, T.; Chen, J.-F.; Morrow, R. Concepts for Reusing Composite Materials from Decommissioned Wind Turbine Blades in Affordable Housing. Recycling 2018, 3, 3.
  21. Bank, L.; McDonald, A.; Kiernicki, C.; Bermek, M.; Zhang, Z.; Poff, A.; Kakkad, S.; Lau, E.; Arias, F.; Gentry, R. Re-Wind Design Catalog 2nd Edition Fall/Autumn 2022; Re-Wind Network: Atlanta, GA, USA; Cork, Ireland; Belfast, UK, 2022.
  22. Nagle, A.J.; Mullally, G.; Leahy, P.G.; Dunphy, N.P. Life cycle assessment of the use of decommissioned wind blades in second life applications. J. Environ. Manag. 2022, 302, 113994.
  23. Yazdanbakhsh, A.; Bank, L.C. A Critical Review of Research on Reuse of Mechanically Recycled FRP Production and End-of-Life Waste for Construction. Polymers 2014, 6, 1810–1826.
  24. Yazdanbakhsh, A.; Bank, L.C.; Rieder, K.A.; Tian, Y.; Chen, C. Concrete with discrete slender elements from mechanically recycled wind turbine blades. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2018, 128, 11–21.
  25. Beauson, J.; Madsen, B.; Toncelli, C.; Brøndsted, P.; Bech, J.I. Recycling of shredded composites from wind turbine blades in new thermoset polymer composites. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2016, 90, 290–299.
  26. How Wind Is Going Circular: Blade Recycling; ETIPWind: Brussels, Belgium, 2019; Available online: https://etipwind.eu/files/reports/ETIPWind-How-wind-is-going-circular-blade-recycling.pdf (accessed on 24 June 2023).
  27. Discussion Paper on Managing Composite Blade Waste; WindEurope: Brussels, Belgium, 2017; Available online: https://windeurope.org/wp-content/uploads/files/policy/topics/sustainability/Discussion-paper-on-blade-waste-treatment-20170418.pdf (accessed on 24 June 2023).
  28. Decommissioning of Onshore Wind Turbines; WindEurope: Brussels, Belgium, 2020; Available online: https://windeurope.org/intelligence-platform/product/decommissioning-of-onshore-wind-turbines/ (accessed on 24 June 2023).
  29. Cooperman, A.; Eberle, A.; Lantz, E. Wind turbine blade material in the United States: Quantities, costs, and end-of-life options. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2021, 168, 105439.
  30. Joint Contribution of CEMBUREAU and EuCIA to the JRC “Recycling” Definition Project with Regard to Co-Processing of Composite End of Life/Use Material Specific to the Cement Industry; Position Paper; European Composites Industry Association (EuCIA): Brussels, Belgium, 2022; Available online: https://eucia.eu/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Position-paper-co-processing-of-composites-CEMbureau-EuCIA-for-JRC-study-final.pdf (accessed on 24 June 2023).
  31. WindEurope CEO Visits German Cement Plant That’s Running on Blade Waste. WindEurope, Brussells, Belguim. Available online: https://windeurope.org/newsroom/news/windeurope-ceo-visits-german-cement-plant-thats-running-on-blade-waste/ (accessed on 8 March 2023).
  32. Gray, B. What to Do with Old Wind Turbine Blades? Mississippi River Facility Recycles Them. Available online: https://www.stltoday.com/business/local/what-to-do-with-old-wind-turbine-blades-mississippi-river-facility-recycles-them/article_e0342ece-185e-5de9-a405-a6b34c0c2aca.html (accessed on 8 March 2023).
  33. Job, S. Recycling glass fibre reinforced composites—History and progress. Reinf. Plast. 2013, 57, 19–23.
  34. Qureshi, J. A Review of Recycling Methods for Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites. Sustainability 2022, 14, 16855.
  35. Fitzgerald, A.; Forsyth, M.; Job, S.; Keen, N. The Sustainability of Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites: A Good Practice Guide; Composites UK: Berkhamsted, UK, 2022.
  36. DecomBlades. Results & Resources. Available online: https://decomblades.dk/ (accessed on 3 March 2023).
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Subjects: Energy & Fuels
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Emma L. Delaney
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Paul G. Leahy
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Jennifer M. McKinley
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T. Russell Gentry
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Angela J. Nagle
,
Jeffrey Elberling
,
Lawrence C. Bank
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Update Date: 29 Aug 2023
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