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Pino-Vargas, E.; Espinoza-Molina, J.; Chávarri-Velarde, E.; Quille-Mamani, J.; Ingol-Blanco, E. Groundwater Management Policies and Caplina Aquifer, Atacama Desert. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/47439 (accessed on 17 May 2024).
Pino-Vargas E, Espinoza-Molina J, Chávarri-Velarde E, Quille-Mamani J, Ingol-Blanco E. Groundwater Management Policies and Caplina Aquifer, Atacama Desert. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/47439. Accessed May 17, 2024.
Pino-Vargas, Edwin, Jorge Espinoza-Molina, Eduardo Chávarri-Velarde, Javier Quille-Mamani, Eusebio Ingol-Blanco. "Groundwater Management Policies and Caplina Aquifer, Atacama Desert" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/47439 (accessed May 17, 2024).
Pino-Vargas, E., Espinoza-Molina, J., Chávarri-Velarde, E., Quille-Mamani, J., & Ingol-Blanco, E. (2023, July 31). Groundwater Management Policies and Caplina Aquifer, Atacama Desert. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/47439
Pino-Vargas, Edwin, et al. "Groundwater Management Policies and Caplina Aquifer, Atacama Desert." Encyclopedia. Web. 31 July, 2023.
Groundwater Management Policies and Caplina Aquifer, Atacama Desert
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/w15142610

Groundwater constitutes one of the main sources used to satisfy the water demands of the different users located in a basin. Groundwater pumping rates in many cases exceed natural recharge, resulting in the overexploitation of aquifers and the deterioration of water quality. Consequently, many aquifer systems in the world have applied and adapted policies to manage the use of groundwater. The conditions of the groundwater of the Caplina aquifer are not sustainable, and likewise, public policies are not effective for reversing this situation. This leads the aquifer system to a situation in which there is a quality degradation of the water, to a point that may be irreversible.

Atacama Desert water science water resources law groundwater

1. Introduction

In many parts of the world, groundwater is one of the main sources used to satisfy the water demands of the different users located within a water resources system. On the other hand, population growth, economic development, and climate change, among other factors, increase the need for greater water consumption, exacerbating conflicts between users and the overexploitation of aquifers. In this sense, different policies and regulations have been developed, applied, and adapted to carry out the correct management of groundwater; however, many of them have not been effective in achieving the sustainability of aquifers [1][2][3].
Furthermore, freshwater scarcity is increasingly perceived as a global systemic risk [4]; this scarcity of water puts food security at risk, adding to the poor quality of the resource that allows the prevalence of diarrheal diseases—conditions the population to suffer significant levels of malnutrition [5]. In transboundary arid regions, where water resources are scarce, an important aspect of water management is the principle of equitable and reasonable use. States that share watercourses must decide which uses of water are more important than others [6]; likewise, the main management tools applied for their protection must be identified [7]. The anticipated water-related impacts of climate change increase the need for tools and policies that support proactive efforts to address current and future water-related conflicts [8].
In recent decades, intensive agriculture and the overexploitation of water resources have caused groundwater salinization in transboundary aquifers [9][10]. In this sense, the remote sensing of vulnerability seems to be an efficient tool for the management of water resources [10], and the proposal for the management and geo-valorization of unconventional water processes helps to promote better use through the application of recharge and artificial groundwater [11]. These approaches serve as a baseline to improve decision-making in groundwater management.
Thus, unrestricted compliance with the water resources law is vital for proper water management; therefore, its sustainable use requires effective management [12]. Globally, law and policy are appropriately combined in water management in river basins [13]. Legal issues that affect the integration of measures applied in basins to manage water use focus on relevant areas, such as population use, energy, agriculture, and mining [14]. Across the hemisphere, a series of experimental policy reforms and creative counter-practices have established Latin America as a continental force in global water policy [15].
In water-rich Central American countries, the struggle is to ensure access to drinking water for many of its residents, in addition to problems of water distribution and quality, a prolonged drought creates pre-existing governance challenges to guarantee water needs in rural areas [16]. Latin America, with enormous water resources in many parts of the continent and scarcity in others, faces particular water dilemmas; having the two wettest ecosystems in the world and the driest deserts makes it very important to conceptualize the most resource vantage [15][17].
In South America, the Guarani Aquifer System is a transboundary aquifer shared by Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. It stands as one of the largest freshwater reserves in the world and is one of the few aquifers whose management is regulated by an international treaty [18]. In addition, Mexico and the United States have a historical relationship in the political distribution of their transboundary waters; transboundary aquifer systems are considered strategic reservoirs in the process of building water security on the border shared by both nations [19]. From a critical analysis that combines different approaches from hydrogeology, geography, and political science, such as the scientific concepts on groundwater used in planning, and Mexican laws between the years 1948 and 2018, it is affirmed that they affected the forms and mechanisms of control and distribution of water, which were developed by the political power of the State, and favored the economic development of certain areas of the national territory [19][20]. In general, many levels of reform are needed to bridge the gaps between scientific knowledge and policy, and identifying these gaps will be critical to overcoming legacy legal effects and moving toward a policy that better reflects scientific reality [21][22]. In addition, given the need for groundwater and drought management, evidence-based science must be incorporated into public policy [23].
Moreover, water, as a common resource, is threatened by the possibility of over-extraction that generates a negative economic impact, conflicts between users, and greater income inequality [24]. Peru is no stranger to this common situation, which occurs in many countries around the world. We face similar problems, especially when water transfer projects are proposed from the highlands to the coast, where the need for water is increasing—the largest population of the country is located on the coast, and this is where the greatest number of agricultural activities take place. Water security, justice, and the politics of water rights in Peru and Bolivia use top-down and bottom-up formalization strategies attempting to convert customary institutions of water use into law [15]. In Chile, no real public policies have been implemented that aim to respond to the need for the recognition of the ancestral possession of the waters of indigenous peoples [25].
At the head of the Atacama Desert, it must be taken into account that droughts are linked to the behavior of groundwater [23]. In the Atacama Desert, the landscape stands out due to the clear presence of elements of geomorphological heritage (great coastal cliffs, deep ravines, volcanic cones, meteoritic craters), as well as biological heritage (charismatic species such as the Condor and Taruka, native and endemic species) and cultural heritage (pictographs, bofedales, terraces, religious festivals, and churches) [26][27]. The Chilean water model imposed by its dictatorship in 1981 is known as radical, neoliberal water management; in the future, it seeks to distort the idea of the Atacama Desert as a hyper-arid space, rich in mineral resources [28]. In this region, concern about the depletion of groundwater and its degradation has generated the concept of sustainability as a policy instrument in various management codes and directives around the world [21].
Likewise, global climate change projections indicate negative impacts on hydrological systems, with significant changes in precipitation and temperature in many parts of the world, with special emphasis on the Atacama Desert [29][30][31]. In this sense, it is important to develop research projects aimed at identifying the characteristics of the exploitation regime related to public policies that order the balanced extraction of groundwater while considering external forces such as climate change, population growth, and increased irrigation demands, among others.
Unlike what happens at the head of the Atacama Desert, in the middle, the weather systems produce recharge to the aquifers in the Atacama Desert between 24.5 and 25.5° S. This was investigated using δ18O and δ2H data in groundwater and precipitation combined with remote sensing methods. These analyses demonstrated that an important source of moisture is the Pacific Ocean [32].
Specifically, the Caplina aquifer, located within the Atacama Desert, has pollution problems due to marine intrusion caused by the overexploitation of groundwater. Since the 1980s, the water balance has been negative, and the state has not been able to adequately manage the scarce water resources that are available despite the different policies and regulations that were provided at the time [33][34][35]. The governability and governance crisis in the use of groundwater in the Caplina coastal aquifer is an element that contributes to the depletion and deterioration of groundwater quality due to marine intrusion processes [36][37][38][39].

2. Groundwater Management Policies and Caplina Aquifer, Atacama Desert

2.1. On the Instruments of Management and Public Policy

In Peru, the regulatory framework is in place, but the political will is lacking in its ability to generate the economic conditions and the mechanisms for cross-sectoral interaction and participation of strategic non-governmental actors to establish water governance [5]. These actions would make it possible to establish clear and precise guidelines on the Integrated Management of Hydrographic Basins (GIRH) in the basins of this country. The south of the country, located in a very arid region, has special characteristics—the water deficit is the main element to consider, which generates social conflicts among water users. This problem, in all its terms, alters and exceeds the laws regarding management regimes and limitations on the availability of water resources [37].
The Tacna region has a deficit of water resources, its demands for population use and agriculture, among other things, are not covered, and the gap is increasing over time. The surface water resources available from the Caplina, Sama, and Locumba rivers on the slope of the Pacific are insufficient. Regarding underground resources, these do not cover the current demand for La Yarada irrigation. The overexploitation of the Caplina aquifer, mainly for agriculture, since the 1980s has caused the depletion of groundwater and the intrusion of seawater [29][31][35][39][40].
As for the first case identified between farmers and mining companies in the high Andean zone, the fight for the use of water is permanent—the farmers demand a review of the water use licenses since the water resources law only establishes priorities for use.
The conflict between the government entities in charge of transferring water to the coast and the community members of the high Andean zone dates back many years—to when the water deficit in the city and valley of Tacna began to show. The water resources law and its regulations do not endorse or guarantee the cover of water demands using water transfer between basins; legal actions have paralyzed the execution of works; and the situation has become uncertain, which seriously compromises the sustainability of groundwater in this region. The history of the world is full of tensions caused by the scarcity of natural resources such as gold, diamonds, and oil; however, water, which until now had not been considered a factor in conflict, due to climate change, has become the “blue gold” of this century [7].
Regarding the use of groundwater from the Caplina aquifer, unauthorized users extract water and generate an imbalance, leading to a chaotic situation. Extractions far exceed recharge; in this sense, authorities try to restore order in the extractions, and the situation becomes very complex—social problems arise that lead to verbal and physical aggression against the representative authority of the state in water matters. It is necessary to have a specific regulatory framework for groundwater that recognizes its particularity; the institutional framework in terms of Water Law must be consolidated and strengthened [37].

2.2. About the Results of Scientific Evidence

The results from the scientific point of view are discouraging. The balance of the Caplina aquifer system shows a very high tendency towards negative values, which is counterproductive to achieving the objective of the sustainable management of the underground system. The excessive pumping that has generated the salinization of wells due to marine intrusion processes, resulting from governance and governability problems, has generated the degradation of the groundwater quality of the Caplina aquifer [31][33][34][35].
These research results show that the aquifer system is going through salinization problems due to overexploitation [41][42]. Currently, it is estimated that the extraction volume is five times the recharge volume [31]; at this rate of extraction, the system presents a negative trend and its collapse is imminent, unless the corresponding corrective measures are taken.
The corrective measures of the salinization processes of the aquifer can be of two types: the first is non-structural and the second is structural [33]. The first aims at establishing a management plan and the reorganization of extractions—elements of great importance because as the volume of extraction cannot be specified, there is great resistance to being audited from non-formalized users.
Regarding the structural measures, it can subgroup them into conventional and unconventional. The former refers to the use of reservoirs and water transfer between basins. The possible unconventional measures to implement are reusing, recycling, and desalination.
The third group of special or alternative measures include the administration of the recharge of aquifers and palliative techniques, such as the reduction of runoff in forests and urban areas, traps for runoff, savings, efficient pipe networks, reduction of evaporation in reservoirs, etc. Of these possible measures to be implemented, the artificial recharge of the aquifer combined with the implementation of hydraulic barriers is feasible, and volumes of transferred water will be available in the medium and long term that can be used for this purpose.

2.3. Management, Public Policy, and Science Results

An in-depth analysis of the water crisis shows that most of the problems that have arisen have been caused by incorrect, unprofessional and hasty policies [43]. Likewise, in the Caplina aquifer system, it is evident that groundwater governance does not have a good position in terms of coherence and scope, and in turn this will not improve if the actors do not interfere in the policies and pay attention to local governance. Governance and governability problems are the main factors in the process of the deterioration of water quality due to marine intrusion [37][38].
For this reason, the full participation of the government, civil society and the various institutions and user organizations grouped in a space where the results of science are considered and made compatible with management instruments is required, to guarantee the sustainable use of groundwater. The world water crisis has become a very serious crisis and every day it has deepened and worsened, and future wars are likely to be over water [43].
Establishing synergy between the actors and based on scientific results, it will be possible to evaluate and establish the precise guidelines to determine a program for the rational use of water in the Caplina aquifer, which will lead to a gradual recovery of the aquifer, based on mitigation measures. The measures must incorporate the reduction of extraction volumes, water culture, and external sources to replace the water used or artificially recharge aquifers [33][38]. Worldwide, favorable mitigation measures have been identified for the conservation of aquifer systems, among which are physical and non-physical or management actions, leading to the avoidance of collapse and achieving recovery and conservation [33]. Therefore, it is possible to implement non-structural and structural measures. The first aim at establishing a management plan and ordering extractions and the second at using reservoirs and the transfer of water between basins, as well as the reuse, recycling and desalination of seawater for the artificial recharge of the aquifer.
In the Atacama Desert in northern Chile and southern Peru, economic and social development is based on the use of fossil groundwater, and groundwater extraction has increased significantly in the last 30 years [44]. In addition, the Tacna region does not have sufficient water supplies for the different users, whose water allocations come mainly from groundwater from the Caplina/Concordia transboundary aquifer (Peru and Chile) and from the water transfer from the Maure transboundary basin, which also includes Bolivia.

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Subjects: Water Resources
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Edwin Pino-Vargas
,
Jorge Espinoza-Molina
,
Eduardo Chávarri-Velarde
,
Javier Quille-Mamani
,
Eusebio Ingol-Blanco
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Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 01 Aug 2023
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