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Nair, V.K.; Selvaraju, K.; Samuchiwal, S.; Naaz, F.; Malik, A.; Ghosh, P. Textile Industry. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/46033 (accessed on 17 May 2024).
Nair VK, Selvaraju K, Samuchiwal S, Naaz F, Malik A, Ghosh P. Textile Industry. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/46033. Accessed May 17, 2024.
Nair, Vivek Kumar, Koushalya Selvaraju, Saurabh Samuchiwal, Farah Naaz, Anushree Malik, Pooja Ghosh. "Textile Industry" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/46033 (accessed May 17, 2024).
Nair, V.K., Selvaraju, K., Samuchiwal, S., Naaz, F., Malik, A., & Ghosh, P. (2023, June 26). Textile Industry. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/46033
Nair, Vivek Kumar, et al. "Textile Industry." Encyclopedia. Web. 26 June, 2023.
Textile Industry
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/pr11061793

The textile industry is one of the world’s most influential and rapidly developing sectors. These textile industries have a global market share of around $2000 and offer employment to ~120 million people across the globe. 

textile wastewater dye degradation

1. Introduction

The textile industry is one of the world’s most influential and rapidly developing sectors [1]. These textile industries have a global market share of around $2000 and offer employment to ~120 million people across the globe. In India textile industry is one of the oldest industries and the second largest producer of textile apparel which shares around 5% of total global exports and contributes to 27% of Nationals Gross Domestic Product (GDP) [2]. Unfortunately, this sector employs a significant amount of water for its various wet processing activities and generates vast amounts of highly hazardous wastewater with a wide range of characteristics [3][4][5]. It is estimated that, on average, to create 8000 kg of textile fabric each day, a typical textile industry uses 1.6 million liters of groundwater, of which 30–40% is utilized in the dyeing process, 60–70% in the washing stage and 10–50% of unwanted dyes are discharged into water resource together with the produced effluent [6][7]. A typical textile industry is estimated to produce 5.2–6.6 MLD of textile wastewater through different unit operations [8]. The wastewater from these industries is generally characterized by high COD, color, and total dissolved and suspended solids, which make its treatment difficult [9][10][11]. Although the makeup of textile effluents varies considerably depending on the methods employed and the kind of fibers used, it generally includes a variety of unutilized organic and chemical components, such as dye waste, color residues, acids, alkalis, starch, various kinds of surfactants, cleaning solvents, inorganic salts [12]. When these complex wastewaters comprising the toxic cocktail of numerous types of dyes and chemical reaches the water bodies, it threatens the ecological balance of the aquatic ecosystem. Hence, they should be adequately treated before releasing them into the environment.

2. Varieties of Dyes and Fabrics Used

Dyes are compounds that have the property to absorb light radiance in the visible spectra (400–700 nm). The chromophoric group in the dye structure is responsible for the selective absorption of the incident light, and reflected light provides specific color to the dyes [13]. There are mainly two types of dyes such as natural and synthetic dyes, used in tie and dye sectors. Natural dyes are mainly derived from plants, animals, microbes, and minerals. They are considered less toxic to nature and can easily be degraded microbially. Some important sources of natural dyes are henna (Lawsonia inermis L.), Indigo (Indigofera tinctoria), Turmeric (Curcuma longa), Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), Saffron (Crocus sativus) and Pomegranate rind (Punica granatum) [14]. However, due to rapid growth and market demand, the industry’s demand for synthetic dyes continuously increases. Chandanshive et al. [15] reported that around 7 × 107 tons/year of synthetic dyes are produced worldwide for the textile industry. ~10% of the dyes are discharged into the waste stream. The dyes are characterized based on chromophore structure, which provides specific color to the dye. The most common chromophores are azo group (N=N), nitro (-NO2), nitroso (-N=O), and carbonyl (-C=S) [3]. These chromophores absorb the incident electromagnetic wave due to the excitation of electrons to the higher orbit. The auxochrome group is also an important structure present in the dye structure, which is responsible for the fixation of dye to the fabrics. Various auxochromes exist, such as -COOH, -OH, NH2, NR2, etc. [13]. The textile industry fabrics are divided into two major categories: natural fabrics (cotton, hemp, wool, silk) and synthetic fabrics (nylon, polyester, polypropylene). Table 1 shows the list of industries using various dyes for specific fabrics.
Table 1. List of various dyes used by the textile industry for different fabrics [16][17][18].
  Fiber’s Categories Dyes Used
Natural fiber Cellulose fibers: Cotton, hemp, rayon, ramie, lyocell, and linen Reactive dyes (remazol red and remazol blue), direct dyes (congo red and direct brown 116), naphthol dyes (fast yellow GC, and indigo dyes (indigo white and indigo carmine)
Protein fibers: Wool. silk, cashmere and mohair Acid dyes (azo dyes and anthraquinone dyes) and lanaset dyes (Bordeaux B)
Synthetic fibers Synthetic fibers: Nylon, polypropylene, polyester, acrylic and acetate Dispersed dyes (disperse red and disperse navy blue), basic dyes and direct dyes,

3. Effluent Characteristics

The qualities of the textile wastewater emitted vary by industry depending upon the machinery, processing unit and the nature of fabric and dyes required for desirable fabric production [19]. However, most textile industries comprise a range of wet processes such as de-sizing, scouring, bleaching, mercerization, dyeing, and washing [16]. The water footprint is very high in these wet processes, leading to a huge volume of effluent discharge. The steps are commonly known as the pre-treatment range units and are required to remove the starch and other impurities (like salts, enzymes, dust, etc.) from fabrics and provide white color to the fabric material. The main purpose of the de-sizing unit is to detach the starch from the fabric through hydrolysis or oxidation. This leads to the direct discharge of enzymes, starch, and hydrogen peroxide into the waste stream, making effluent rich in organic content.
Similarly, the scouring and bleaching processes are required to remove the cotton wax and natural color substance from the fabric surface. These processes include using hot alkali, detergent, organic solvent, and hypochlorite (bleaching agent). Afterwards, mercerization must provide luster, increase strength, and improve dye uptake capacity [20]. The dyeing unit is the central process where a wide range of dyes or pigments are applied to the fabric to provide desirable shade. As discussed in the previous section, different dyes are used according to the fabric. In addition, various chemicals such as surfactants, salts, metals, sulfide, and organic chemicals might also be added to specific dyes to enhance the dye binding to the fabric. These chemicals and dyes are the key contaminants in the generated dye effluent. The primary metals responsible for environmental degradation are zinc, chromium, iron, lead, and mercury. Table 2 shows the reported physicochemical characteristic of actual textile effluent in different textile industries worldwide. Literature reported that the high chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), TDS, and color of textile effluent were due to the presence of a large number of chemicals, salts, starch, fabric residue, and complex dyes [21][22][23]. Moreover, the effluent also has high pH and temperature. The range of organic content and other parameters in the effluent varies throughout the year as per the market demand for fabric.
Table 2. Physico-chemical characterization of real textile effluent.
Parameters [24] [25] [26] [22] [23] [27] [21]
COD (mg/L) 350–700 1017 2200–2800 2200 ± 250 700–1250 3280 1000 ± 100
BOD (mg/L) 150–350 9.8 - - - 689 -
Colour
(Hazen value)		 - - - 2800 ± 300 500–1250 4225 6383 ± 100
pH 5.5–10.5 9 9.5–11.2 11.5 ± 0.5 8–9.5 8.6 9.2 ± 0.2
Total dissolved solids (mg/L) 1500–2200 - 1870 3200 ± 300 - - -
Total Suspended Solids (mg/L) 200–1100 535 - 150–250 200–450 1746 -
Chloride (mg/L) 200–500 38,600 745.5 - 800–1500 - -
Sulphate (mg/L) 500–700 4500 - 350 ± 50 200–600 - 362 ± 100

References

  1. Sabirov, O.S.; Suyunov, Y.B.; Aslonov, A.F.O.; Subhonov, M.R.O.; Kamilov, A.Q.O. Improvement of Ways to Develop the Textile Industry on the Basis of Resource-Technology. Int. J. Mod. Agric. 2021, 10, 1868–1877.
  2. Kumar, R.S. Indian Textile Industry: Opportunities, Challenges and Suggestions. Trends Text. Eng. Fash. Technol. 2018, 2, 3886–3901.
  3. Holkar, C.R.; Jadhav, A.J.; Pinjari, D.V.; Mahamuni, N.M.; Pandit, A.B. A Critical Review on Textile Wastewater Treatments: Possible Approaches. J. Environ. Manag. 2016, 182, 351–366.
  4. Siddique, K.; Rizwan, M.; Shahid, M.J.; Ali, S.; Ahmad, R.; Rizvi, H. Textile Wastewater Treatment Options: A Critical Review. Enhancing Cleanup Environ. Pollut. 2017, 2, 183–207.
  5. Jegatheesan, V.; Pramanik, B.K.; Chen, J.; Navaratna, D.; Chang, C.Y.; Shu, L. Treatment of Textile Wastewater with Membrane Bioreactor: A Critical Review. Bioresour. Technol. 2016, 204, 202–212.
  6. Asgari, G.; Shabanloo, A.; Salari, M.; Eslami, F. Sonophotocatalytic Treatment of AB113 Dye and Real Textile Wastewater Using ZnO/Persulfate: Modeling by Response Surface Methodology and Artificial Neural Network. Environ. Res. 2020, 184, 109367.
  7. Cai, H.; Liang, J.; Ning, X.; Lai, X.; Li, Y. Algal Toxicity Induced by Effluents from Textile-Dyeing Wastewater Treatment Plants. J. Environ. Sci. 2020, 91, 199–208.
  8. Samuchiwal, S.; Gola, D.; Malik, A. Decolourization of Textile Effluent Using Native Microbial Consortium Enriched from Textile Industry Effluent. J. Hazard. Mater. 2021, 402, 123835.
  9. Tania, K.A.; Bhuiyan, M.A.R.; Ferdous, M. Emerging Small-Scale Textile Industries in Residential Areas of Mirpur, Dhaka City, Bangladesh: An Assessment of the Discharged Wastewater Quality and Potential Impacts. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2022, 194, 560.
  10. Shenoy, A.; Bansal, V.; Shukla, B.K. Treatability of Effluent from Small Scale Dye Shop Using Water Hyacinth. Mater. Today Proc. 2022, 61, 579–586.
  11. Kalia, S.; Dalvi, V.; Nair, V.K.; Samuchiwal, S.; Malik, A. Hybrid Electrocoagulation and Laccase Mediated Treatment for Efficient Decolorization of Effluent Generated from Textile Industries. Environ. Res. 2023, 228, 115868.
  12. Paul, S.A.; Chavan, S.K.; Khambe, S.D. Studies on Characterization of Textile Industrial Waste Water in Solapur City. Int. J. Chem. Sci. 2012, 10, 635–642.
  13. Benkhaya, S.; M’ rabet, S.; El Harfi, A. A Review on Classifications, Recent Synthesis and Applications of Textile Dyes. Inorg. Chem. Commun. 2020, 115, 107891.
  14. Kumar Gupta, V. Fundamentals of Natural Dyes and Its Application on Textile Substrates. In Chemistry and Technology of Natural and Synthetic Dyes and Pigments; IntechOpen: London, UK, 2020.
  15. Chandanshive, V.V.; Kadam, S.K.; Khandare, R.V.; Kurade, M.B.; Jeon, B.H.; Jadhav, J.P.; Govindwar, S.P. In Situ Phytoremediation of Dyes from Textile Wastewater Using Garden Ornamental Plants, Effect on Soil Quality and Plant Growth. Chemosphere 2018, 210, 968–976.
  16. Ghaly, A.E.; Ananthashankar, R.; Alhattab, M.V.; Ramakrishnan, V.V. Production, Characterization and Treatment of Textile Effluents: A Critical Review. J. Chem. Eng. Process Technol. 2014, 5, 1–19.
  17. Dunne, R.; Desai, D.; Sadiku, R.; Jayaramudu, J. A Review of Natural Fibres, Their Sustainability and Automotive Applications. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 2016, 35, 1041–1050.
  18. Lafarga, T.; Fernández-Sevilla, J.M.; González-López, C.; Acién-Fernández, F.G. Spirulina for the Food and Functional Food Industries. Food Res. Int. 2020, 137, 109356.
  19. Madhav, S.; Ahamad, A.; Singh, P.; Mishra, P.K. A Review of Textile Industry: Wet Processing, Environmental Impacts, and Effluent Treatment Methods. Environ. Qual. Manag. 2018, 27, 31–41.
  20. Madhu, A.; Chakraborty, J.N. Developments in Application of Enzymes for Textile Processing. J. Clean. Prod. 2017, 145, 114–133.
  21. Kozak, M.; Cırık, K.; Dolaz, M.; Başak, S. Evaluation of Textile Wastewater Treatment in Sequential Anaerobic Moving Bed Bioreactor-Aerobic Membrane Bioreactor. Process Biochem. 2021, 105, 62–71.
  22. Samuchiwal, S.; Bhattacharya, A.; Malik, A. Treatment of Textile Effluent Using an Anaerobic Reactor Integrated with Activated Carbon and Ultrafiltration Unit (AN-ACF-UF Process) Targeting Salt Recovery and Its Reusability Potential in the Pad-Batch Process. J. Water Process Eng. 2020, 40, 101770.
  23. Yurtsever, A.; Sahinkaya, E.; Çınar, Ö. Performance and Foulant Characteristics of an Anaerobic Membrane Bioreactor Treating Real Textile Wastewater. J. Water Process Eng. 2020, 33, 101088.
  24. Sanmuga Priya, E.; Senthamil Selvan, P. Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes)—An Efficient and Economic Adsorbent for Textile Effluent Treatment–A Review. Arab. J. Chem. 2017, 10, S3548–S3558.
  25. Tomei, M.C.; Soria Pascual, J.; Mosca Angelucci, D. Analysing Performance of Real Textile Wastewater Bio-Decolourization under Different Reaction Environments. J. Clean. Prod. 2016, 129, 468–477.
  26. Shoukat, R.; Khan, S.J.; Jamal, Y. Hybrid Anaerobic-Aerobic Biological Treatment for Real Textile Wastewater. J. Water Process Eng. 2019, 29, 100804.
  27. Saratale, R.G.; Saratale, G.D.; Govindwar, S.P.; Kim, D.S. Exploiting the Efficacy of Lysinibacillus Sp. RGS for Decolorization and Detoxification of Industrial Dyes, Textile Effluent and Bioreactor Studies. J. Environ. Sci. Health A Toxic Hazard. Subst. Environ. Eng. 2015, 50, 176–192.
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Subjects: Water Resources
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Vivek Kumar Nair
,
Koushalya Selvaraju
,
Saurabh Samuchiwal
,
Farah Naaz
,
Anushree Malik
,
Pooja Ghosh
View Times: 231
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 28 Jun 2023
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