Fibrous Plant-Based Food Waste for Sorbing Heavy Metals

Version	Summary	Created by	Modification	Content Size	Created at	Operation
1		Seddik Khalloufi	--	2227	2023-05-31 15:44:02	\|
2	format correct	Jessie Wu	Meta information modification	2227	2023-06-01 04:42:09	\|

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/molecules28104205

“Heavy metals” are associated with environmental pollution, food contamination, and toxicity and have adverse effects on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and animal and human health. Hazardous heavy metals and metalloids, such as arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), and mercury (Hg), and several essential heavy metals, such as copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn), above threshold levels, have been identified as priority contaminants and one of the key environmental issues of global concern due to their mobility in terrestrial and natural aquatic ecosystems and their carcinogenic nature. Use of inexpensive and abundantly available biosorbents generated from fibrous plant-based food-waste materials to remove heavy metals has garnered considerable research attention.

biosorbents food-waste valorization plant fibers wastewater treatment metal

1. Plant-Fiber Components

Plant fibers are found as structural elements in agricultural crops and in their botanical parts, such as nuts, grains, or seeds (beans, split peas, soybeans, corn, sunflowers, barley, oats, wheat, almonds, pumpkins, etc.); lentils, legumes, or vegetables (cauliflower, carrots, broccoli, celery, cabbage, turnip greens, brussels sprouts, potatoes, artichokes, eggplants, beets, cauliflower, endives, turnips, fennel, onions, leeks, rutabagas, etc.); and fruits (guavas, mangoes, strawberries, pomegranates, bananas, prunes, apples, raspberries, pears, avocados, blackberries, oranges, pineapples, etc.). Plant fibers have a complex structure that is really made up of a cell wall and a central lumen channel. The middle lamella, the primary wall, and the secondary wall are the three components that make up a cell wall ^[1]. The primary wall is made up of disorganized cellulose in a pectin, hemicellulose, and lignin matrix. The secondary wall is composed of crystalline cellulose and is separated into three sections: the exterior, middle, and interior secondary walls ^[2]. The chemical components of plant fibers, including cellulose, lignin, hemicellulose, pectin, and wax, can be different depending on their sources and origins ^[1]. In food science, cellulose, lignin, pectin, and hemicellulose derived or extracted from fibrous plant foods or contained in plant foods or plant-fiber matrices are designated as cellulose fiber, lignin fiber, pectin fiber, and hemicellulose fiber, respectively.

The main component of plant cells is generally cellulose, which is arranged in microfibrils and surrounded by hemicellulose, which includes xylans, mannans, glucomannans, galactans, and arabinogalactans as well as lignin, pectin, and trace amounts of protein ^[3]^[4]. Fibers include functional groups such as carboxyl, phenolic, lactonic, and hydroxyl groups that bind to metals and remove them from aqueous environments. These functional groups interact with metal ions and act as hydrogen-ion replacements. Over a wide pH range, the process includes electrostatic and dispersive interactions between cations and the acidic surface area ^[5]. Feng and Guo ^[6] showed how Pb²⁺, Cd²⁺, and Ni²⁺ ions were attached to modified orange peel by inclusion of carboxyl and hydroxyl groups. The constancy of metal-fiber complexes varies with the type of metal, the experimental settings, the fiber sources, and other factors, according to published studies ^[3]^[5]. Al-Ghouti and Li ^[7] revealed that raw date pits may be utilized to remove Cu²⁺ and Cd²⁺ through the processes of complexation, coordination, chelation, ion exchange, and adsorption.

2. Fibrous Plant-Based Biomass Parts

The different parts of fibrous plant-based biomasses, considered low-cost potential metal biosorbents, are leaves, stems, stalks, roots, bagasse, seeds, shells, peels, husks, bark, and fibers ^[8]^[9]^[10]. Various plant fiber-based biomasses have been widely used as natural materials, pretreated or chemically modified, for heavy-metal removal from aqueous media, including wastewater and aqueous solutions. These are carrot residue ^[11]; potato peel ^[12]; sunflower stalks and leaves ^[13]; coconut shells ^[14]; seed shells ^[15]; coffee husks ^[16]; sugar-beet pulp ^[17]^[18]; crude olive stones ^[19]; olive-oil waste and hydrolyzed olive cake ^[20]^[21]; apple peel beads ^[22]; citrus peels ^[23], the shells of hazelnuts and almonds ^[24]; physic seed hulls ^[25]; rice husks ^[26]; neem bark ^[27]; tea waste ^[28]; sunflower, potato, canola and walnut shells ^[13]; sugarcane bagasse ^[29]; bamboo charcoal ^[30]; pistachio-hull waste ^[31]; cashew-nut shells ^[32]; agave bagasse ^[33]; Rosa damascena leaf powder ^[34]; ajwa date pits ^[35]; chemically modified orange peel ^[6]; banana peel and chemically modified banana peel ^[36]; orange and potato immobilized on sodium alginate beads ^[37]; olive-oil waste and hydrolyzed olive cake ^[20]^[21]; banana thrunk fibers ^[38]; and cellulose fibers extracted from pineapple leaves ^[39] (Table 1).

Table 1. Commonly used fibrous plant-based food waste for heavy-metal removal from wastewater and aqueous solutions.

Sorbents	Heavy Metals Removed	Sorption Conditions	Modification Method	Mechanisms of Action	Sorption Capacity (mg/g)	References
Artocarpus nobilis (Peel)	Ni²⁺	pH of 4 90 min 175 °C	HNO₃	Ion exchange	Ni²⁺: 0.012	^[40]
Black Oak (Bark)	Hg²⁺	pH of 2–10 20–150 min Adsorption dose of 20–60 mg/L	None	Complexation, adsorption on surface, diffusion, and ion exchange	Hg²⁺: 400	^[14]
Coconut (Shell)	Cd²⁺, Pb²⁺	pH of 2–10 20–150 min Adsorption dose of 20–60 mg/L	None	Complexation, adsorption on surface, diffusion, and ion exchange	Cd²⁺: 285 Pb²⁺: 263	^[14]
Cantaloupe (Peel)	Cd²⁺, Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺	pH of 5–7	Acrylic acid	Ion exchange and complexation	Cd²⁺: 45.4 Cu²⁺: 33.1 Pb²⁺: 143.3	^[41]
Carrot (Residue)	Cr³⁺, Cu²⁺, Zn²⁺	pH of 4 Initial ion concentration of 20 to 500 mg/L	None	Ion exchange	Cr³⁺: 1.65 Cu²⁺: 1.82 Zn²⁺: 1.45	^[11]
Lemon (Peel)	Cd²⁺	pH of 5 45 min Initial ion concentration of 45 mg/L Particle size of 0.24–0.42 mm	Protonation and HNO₃	Ion exchange	Cd²⁺: 32.5	^[42]
Potato (Peel)	Cu²⁺	pH of 6 20 min 30 °C Initial ion concentration of 150 mg/L Particle size of 0.2 mm	None	Surface complexation and ion exchange	Cu²⁺: 0.15	^[43]
Potato (Shell)	Cu²⁺, Cd²⁺	pH of 6.8 200 min (Cd) 50 min (Cu)	None	Electrostatic interaction	Cd²⁺: 90 Cu²⁺: 41.7	^[13]
Soybean (Straw)	Cu²⁺	pH of 6 60 min	Citric acid	Ion exchange	Cu²⁺: 48.2–48.8	^[44]
Sunflower (Stalk and Leaves)	Cd²⁺, Cu²⁺	pH of 6 120 min (Cd) 50 min (Cu)	None	Electrostatic interaction	Cd²⁺: 63.3 Cu²⁺: 30.3	^[13]
Tangerine (Peel)	Cd²⁺, Co^2+, Cr³⁺, Cu²⁺, Mn²⁺, Ni²⁺, Pb²⁺, Zn²⁺	pH of 5 20 min Room temperature Adsorbent dose of 1–4 g/L	Nitric acid	Ion exchange	Cd²⁺: 0.003 Co²⁺: 0.01 Cr³⁺: 0.01 Cu²⁺: 0.002 Mn²⁺: 0.01 Ni²⁺: 0.01 Pb²⁺: 0.002 Zn²⁺: 0.003	^[45]
Wheat (Bran)	Cr⁶⁺	pH of 2–10 20–150 min Adsorption dose of 20–60 mg/L	None	Complexation, adsorption on surface, diffusion, and ion exchange	Cr⁶⁺: 310	^[14]
Wheat (Bran)	As³⁺, Cd²⁺, Hg²⁺, Pb²⁺	pH of 7 37 ℃	None	Ion exchange	As³⁺: 0.98 Cd²⁺: 36.1 Hg²⁺: 39.6 Pb²⁺: 58.2	^[46]

3. Factors Influencing the Sorption Efficiencies of Fibrous Plants

The capacities of biowaste-derived sorbents for metal-ion sorption are, however, dependent on the physicochemical properties of the prepared sorbents. The most important properties of these sorbents are cation exchange capacity (CEC), pore distribution, porosity, specific surface area, surface functional groups, etc. ^[47]^[48]. Lyu and Wang ^[49] stated that larger specific surface areas led to higher metal (Cd²⁺, Cu²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Zn²⁺) sorption from their aqueous solutions using insoluble fiber from soybean dregs (okara). They described that the smaller particle size of insoluble okara fiber demonstrated a higher oil-holding capacity (OHC), CEC, and sorption capacity of heavy metals. In another study, ultramicro-grinding of insoluble fiber from carrot pomace decreased the particle size of the total fiber and increased its Brunauer–Emmett–Teller surface area from 0.374 to 1.835 m²/g, leading to an increase in the water-holding capacity (WHC), swelling capacity (SC), and OHC, as well as the nitrite- and Pb²⁺-ion-adsorbing capacities ^[50]. Furthermore, Al-Ghouti and Li ^[7] discovered that the volume of solute (Cu²⁺ and Cd²⁺) adsorbed increases as the particle size of the adsorbents decreases. The crystallinity of the cellulosic structure also affects sorption kinetics ^[51]. Amorphous regions have a positive correlation, while crystalline structures have a negative correlation with heavy-metal sorption ^[52]. With a rise in pH, the negative charge density of a fiber surface improves, which leads to an increase in sorption of heavy metals ^[53]. Higher Cd²⁺, Cu²⁺, and Pb²⁺ bind to biosorbents by having more acidic functional groups and negative zeta potential ^[54]. Similarly, Wang and Yang ^[55] observed that there is a positive correlation between efficiency of removing heavy metals and pH, and that removal efficiency improved when the pH was increased to 7.

Nevertheless, the biological origins of plants and types of processing have a considerable influence on sorption properties. For instance, beet pectin demonstrated a higher affinity for Pb²⁺ and Cu²⁺, while citrus pectin did so for Ni²⁺ and apple pectin did so for Co²⁺ ^[56]. Requena and González ^[57] showed that CEC significantly varies depending on the source of fiber; for example, CEC values of 3.5, 4.1, 2.6, 2.7, 2.6, and 1.3 meq/g were reported for ashen agave bagasse, green agave bagasse, cabuche, prickly pear peel, palm flowers, and the leaves of smooth amaranth, respectively. Nevertheless, sorption capacity largely depends on solution ion strength ^[58]. The higher charge density of Cu²⁺ (116 C mm⁻³) results in increased ion sorption compared to Pb²⁺ (32 C mm⁻³) and Cd²⁺ (59 C mm⁻³) ^[54]. Several critical factors affecting sorption efficiency of heavy metals are presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Critical factors affecting sorption efficiency of heavy metals from aqueous media.

Fiber concentration also possesses substantial effects on sorption efficiency; efficiency of ion sorption increases linearly with increasing concentrations of fiber due to concurrent production of more active sites (OH and COOH) on macromolecules. Sorption efficacy may decrease beyond the optimal sorbent dose due to increased aggregation of adsorbent molecules ^[54]. Pb²⁺ sorption increased for 21.78, 23.41, and 26.98 mg/L at various polymer concentrations, of 1, 2, and 3%, respectively, and at a pH of 5.0, according to Basiri and Shekarforoush ^[59]. Additionally, it was discovered that sorption effectiveness changes with temperature; it increases with rising temperatures before dropping after a period of time. Guiza ^[60] studied Cu-ion sorption from aqueous solutions by cellulose from waste orange peel. That team observed that sorption was dependent on solution pH, adsorbent dosage, contact time, metal-ion concentration, and agitation speed. According to Pal and Giri ^[61], the sorption efficiency of guar gum increased at up to a temperature of 40 °C and then decreased at 40 °C. The efficiency increased due to the possibility that a temperature increase would enhance the ions’ mobility and mobilize more Pb²⁺ towards the giant adsorbent molecules, which would then increase their contact with the surfaces of the adsorbents. However, the efficiency dropped beyond 40 °C due to dominant desorption of Pb²⁺ because of the increased Brownian movement ^[62].

4. Different Modification Technologies for Enhancing Sorption Efficiency

The ability of fibrous plants and their components, such as cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, to remove heavy metals from effluents has been intensively studied. Cellulose, as a plant-fiber component, works as a skeleton of natural plant-cell walls, whereas lignin and hemicellulose are distributed in the fibrous plant matrix, resulting in poor functionalities of fibers ^[63]. Subsequently, it is imperative to develop a suitable method for increasing the functionalities of fibers to enhance usage of plant byproducts, such as biosorbents ^[64]. The effectiveness of these materials can be enhanced through various types of modification techniques. Several technical approaches, including mechanical, chemical, enzymatic, and/or biological technologies, have been developed to disrupt plant cellular integrity and isolate fibers with altered structural, physicochemical, and functional characteristics to enhance sorption efficiency ^[65]^[66].

Physical modification involves altering the physical structures of fibrous plant materials, such as pore size and surface area, to increase their sorption capacities. Methods such as grinding, milling, and sieving can be used to affect physical changes. Huang and Liao ^[67] demonstrated that homogenization via mechanical shearing resulted in damage to the cellulose and crystallization regions of citrus peels, as well as an increase in the specific surface area and the total number of charged ions. Similarly, the molecules of cellulose and lignin were destroyed and transformed into tiny molecules during a steam explosion, increasing the sorption capacities for heavy metals ^[52]. Xu and Wang ^[68] showed that high hydrostatic pressure may significantly enhance the ability of insoluble fibers for water retention and swelling, oil holding and cation exchange, and glucose adsorption. Meanwhile, the twin-screw extrusion treatment has been shown to reduce the OHC of orange-peel fiber and increase the lead-binding ability of garlic-skin fiber ^[69].

Chemical modification involves treating fibrous plants with chemical reagents to introduce functional groups to their surfaces, thereby enhancing their sorption capacities. Using oxidizing compounds such as sodium chlorite and sodium periodate, for example, it is possible to introduce carboxylic and hydroxyl groups. Following a chemical treatment, Wang and Li ^[70] found that kiwifruit fiber treated with NaOH has greater thermal stability, but kiwifruit fiber treated with citric acid delivers higher sorption capacities for water, oil, bile acid, nitrite ions, and glucose. In this regard, Adegoke and Akinnawo ^[71] employed numerous surface-modification treatments, such as acid, alkaline, magnetic, and grafting modifications, for improving sorption of heavy metals, including As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Co, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn. They revealed that acidic treatment mostly favors the sorption process. It has been proven that some pretreatments, such as hydrochloric acid, tartaric acid, sodium carbonate, and sodium hydroxide, can effectively increase the rate of heavy-metal sorption by rice husks ^[72]^[73].

Biological modification entails treating fibrous plant materials with microorganisms or enzymes to alter their surface properties, such as charge and hydrophobicity, thereby increasing their sorption capacities. As a biological surface functionalization, cationic surfactant can be applied to remediate heavy metals in wastewater, in which case, a cationic surfactant could change the negative surface charge of a biosorbent to a positive surface charge and would have the profound ability to uptake metal anions rather than cations. Rastogi and Tiwari ^[74] used agroindustrial waste to synthesize a biosurfactant via submerged fermentation using Bacillus haynesii, and the biosurfactant could significantly remediate Pb²⁺. In addition, Dong and Du ^[75] implied that modified wheat straw with polyethylenimine (a highly branched molecule containing amine groups) has a paramount impact on Cu²⁺ purification from aqueous solutions. Furthermore, Chu and Zhao ^[76] used Bacillus natto to ferment millet bran. As a result of degradation of cellulose and hemicellulose by fermentation, the modified millet bran fiber developed more porous and loose structures, which increased its sorption capacity.

In conclusion, the relationship between various types of modification techniques and the respective components of the plant-fiber sorbent materials used for heavy-metal sorption is complex and dependent on the specific modification technique employed, the type of plant fiber used, and the degree of modification. The selection of an effective modification technique for fibrous plant-based sorbent materials used for heavy-metal sorption requires careful consideration of these factors.

References

Latif, R.; Wakeel, S.; Zaman Khan, N.; Noor Siddiquee, A.; Lal Verma, S.; Akhtar Khan, Z. Surface treatments of plant fibers and their effects on mechanical properties of fiber-reinforced composites: A review. J. Reinf. Plast. Compos. 2019, 38, 15–30.
Fidelis, M.E.A.; Pereira, T.V.C.; Gomes, O.d.F.M.; de Andrade Silva, F.; Toledo Filho, R.D. The effect of fiber morphology on the tensile strength of natural fibers. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 2013, 2, 149–157.
Demirbas, A. Heavy metal adsorption onto agro-based waste materials: A review. J. Hazard. Mater. 2008, 157, 220–229.
Al-Asheh, S.; Duvnjak, Z. Sorption of cadmium and other heavy metals by pine bark. J. Hazard. Mater. 1997, 56, 35–51.
Nawirska, A. Binding of heavy metals to pomace fibers. Food Chem. 2005, 90, 395–400.
Feng, N.; Guo, X.; Liang, S.; Zhu, Y.; Liu, J. Biosorption of heavy metals from aqueous solutions by chemically modified orange peel. J. Hazard. Mater. 2011, 185, 49–54.
Al-Ghouti, M.A.; Li, J.; Salamh, Y.; Al-Laqtah, N.; Walker, G.; Ahmad, M.N. Adsorption mechanisms of removing heavy metals and dyes from aqueous solution using date pits solid adsorbent. J. Hazard. Mater. 2010, 176, 510–520.
Malik, D.; Jain, C.; Yadav, A.K. Removal of heavy metals from emerging cellulosic low-cost adsorbents: A review. Appl. Water Sci. 2017, 7, 2113–2136.
Varghese, A.G.; Paul, S.A.; Latha, M.S. Remediation of heavy metals and dyes from wastewater using cellulose-based adsorbents. Environ. Chem. Lett. 2019, 17, 867–877.
Paranjape, P.; Sadgir, P. Heavy Metal Removal Using Plant Origin Biomass and Agricultural Waste-Derived Biomass from Aqueous Media: A Review. Water Conserv. Sci. Eng. 2023, 8, 9.
Nasernejad, B.; Zadeh, T.E.; Pour, B.B.; Bygi, M.E.; Zamani, A. Camparison for biosorption modeling of heavy metals (Cr (III), Cu (II), Zn (II)) adsorption from wastewater by carrot residues. Process Biochem. 2005, 40, 1319–1322.
El-Azazy, M.; El-Shafie, A.S.; Issa, A.A.; Al-Sulaiti, M.; Al-Yafie, J.; Shomar, B.; Al-Saad, K. Potato peels as an adsorbent for heavy metals from aqueous solutions: Eco-structuring of a green adsorbent operating Plackett–Burman design. J. Chem. 2019, 2019, 4926240.
Feizi, M.; Jalali, M. Removal of heavy metals from aqueous solutions using sunflower, potato, canola and walnut shell residues. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. 2015, 54, 125–136.
Alalwan, H.A.; Kadhom, M.A.; Alminshid, A.H. Removal of heavy metals from wastewater using agricultural byproducts. J. Water Supply Res. Technol.-Aqua 2020, 69, 99–112.
Maina, I.W.; Obuseng, V.; Nareetsile, F. Use of Moringa oleifera (Moringa) seed pods and Sclerocarya birrea (Morula) nut shells for removal of heavy metals from wastewater and borehole water. J. Chem. 2016, 2016, 9312952.
Thi Quyen, V.; Pham, T.-H.; Kim, J.; Thanh, D.M.; Thang, P.Q.; Van Le, Q.; Jung, S.H.; Kim, T. Biosorbent derived from coffee husk for efficient removal of toxic heavy metals from wastewater. Chemosphere 2021, 284, 131312.
Mata, Y.; Blázquez, M.; Ballester, A.; González, F.; Muñoz, J. Studies on sorption, desorption, regeneration and reuse of sugar-beet pectin gels for heavy metal removal. J. Hazard. Mater. 2010, 178, 243–248.
Castro, L.; Blázquez, M.L.; González, F.; Muñoz, J.A.; Ballester, A. Biosorption of Zn (II) from industrial effluents using sugar beet pulp and F. vesiculosus: From laboratory tests to a pilot approach. Sci. Total Environ. 2017, 598, 856–866.
Nieto, L.M.; Alami, S.B.D.; Hodaifa, G.; Faur, C.; Rodríguez, S.; Giménez, J.A.; Ochando, J. Adsorption of iron on crude olive stones. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2010, 32, 467–471.
Petrella, A.; Spasiano, D.; Acquafredda, P.; De Vietro, N.; Ranieri, E.; Cosma, P.; Rizzi, V.; Petruzzelli, V.; Petruzzelli, D. Heavy metals retention (Pb (II), Cd (II), Ni (II)) from single and multimetal solutions by natural biosorbents from the olive oil milling operations. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 2018, 114, 79–90.
Fernández-González, R.; Martín-Lara, M.Á.; Blázquez, G.; Pérez, A.; Calero, M. Recovering Metals from aqueous solutions by biosorption onto hydrolyzed olive cake. Water 2019, 11, 2519.
Singh, R.; Martin, C.; Barr, D.; Rosengren, R. Immobilised apple peel bead biosorbent for the simultaneous removal of heavy metals from cocktail solution. Cogent Environ. Sci. 2019, 5, 1673116.
Šabanović, E.; Memić, M.; Sulejmanović, J.; Selović, A. Simultaneous adsorption of heavy metals from water by novel lemon-peel based biomaterial. Pol. J. Chem. Technol. 2020, 22, 46–53.
Bulut, Y.; Tez, Z. Adsorption studies on ground shells of hazelnut and almond. J. Hazard. Mater. 2007, 149, 35–41.
Mohammad, M.; Maitra, S.; Ahmad, N.; Bustam, A.; Sen, T.; Dutta, B.K. Metal ion removal from aqueous solution using physic seed hull. J. Hazard. Mater. 2010, 179, 363–372.
Xu, X.; Cao, X.; Zhao, L. Comparison of rice husk-and dairy manure-derived biochars for simultaneously removing heavy metals from aqueous solutions: Role of mineral components in biochars. Chemosphere 2013, 92, 955–961.
Maheshwari, U.; Gupta, S. Removal of Cr (VI) from wastewater using activated neem bark in a fixed-bed column: Interference of other ions and kinetic modelling studies. Desalination Water Treat. 2016, 57, 8514–8525.
Tripathi, A.; Ranjan, M.R. Heavy metal removal from wastewater using low cost adsorbents. Bioremediat. Biodegrad. 2015, 6, 1000315.
Chao, H.-P.; Chang, C.-C.; Nieva, A. Biosorption of heavy metals on Citrus maxima peel, passion fruit shell, and sugarcane bagasse in a fixed-bed column. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 2014, 20, 3408–3414.
Wang, F.Y.; Wang, H.; Ma, J.W. Adsorption of cadmium (II) ions from aqueous solution by a new low-cost adsorbent—Bamboo charcoal. J. Hazard. Mater. 2010, 177, 300–306.
Moussavi, G.; Barikbin, B. Biosorption of chromium (VI) from industrial wastewater onto pistachio hull waste biomass. Chem. Eng. J. 2010, 162, 893–900.
SenthilKumar, P.; Ramalingam, S.; Sathyaselvabala, V.; Kirupha, S.D.; Sivanesan, S. Removal of copper (II) ions from aqueous solution by adsorption using cashew nut shell. Desalination 2011, 266, 63–71.
Cholico-González, D.; Ortiz Lara, N.; Fernández Macedo, A.M.; Chavez Salas, J. Adsorption Behavior of Pb(II), Cd(II), and Zn(II) onto Agave Bagasse, Characterization, and Mechanism. ACS Omega 2020, 12, 3302–3314.
Fawzy, M.A.; Al-Yasi, H.M.; Galal, T.M.; Hamza, R.Z.; Abdelkader, T.G.; Ali, E.F.; Hassan, S.H. Statistical optimization, kinetic, equilibrium isotherm and thermodynamic studies of copper biosorption onto Rosa damascena leaves as a low-cost biosorbent. Sci. Rep. 2022, 12, 8583.
Azam, M.; Wabaidur, S.M.; Khan, M.R.; Al-Resayes, S.I.; Islam, M.S. Heavy metal ions removal from aqueous solutions by treated ajwa date pits: Kinetic, isotherm, and thermodynamic approach. Polymers 2022, 14, 914.
Massocatto, C.; Paschoal, E.; Buzinaro, N.; Oliveria, T.; Tarley, C.; Caetano, J.; Gonçalves Jr, A.; Dragunski, D.; Diniz, K. Preparation and evaluation of kinetics and thermodynamics studies of lead adsorption onto chemically modified banana peels. Desalination Water Treat. 2013, 51, 5682–5691.
Nathan, R.J.; Martin, C.E.; Barr, D.; Rosengren, R.J. Simultaneous removal of heavy metals from drinking water by banana, orange and potato peel beads: A study of biosorption kinetics. Appl. Water Sci. 2021, 11, 28.
Sathasivam, K.; Haris, M.R.H.M. Banana trunk fibers as an efficient biosorbent for the removal of Cd(II), Cu(II), Fe(II) and Zn(II) from aqueous solutions. J. Chil. Chem. 2010, 55, 278–282.
Daochalermwong, A.; Chanka, N.; Songsrirote, K.; Dittanet, P.; Niamnuy, C.; Seubsai, A. Removal of Heavy Metal Ions Using Modified Celluloses Prepared from Pineapple Leaf Fiber. ACS Omega 2020, 5, 5285–5296.
Priyantha, N.; Kotabewatta, P. Biosorption of heavy metal ions on peel of Artocarpus nobilis fruit: 1—Ni (II) sorption under static and dynamic conditions. Appl. Water Sci. 2019, 9, 37.
Tran, H.N.; Chao, H.-P. Adsorption and desorption of potentially toxic metals on modified biosorbents through new green grafting process. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2018, 25, 12808–12820.
Schiewer, S.; Patil, S.B. Pectin-rich fruit wastes as biosorbents for heavy metal removal: Equilibrium and kinetics. Bioresour. Technol. 2008, 99, 1896–1903.
Aman, T.; Kazi, A.A.; Sabri, M.U.; Bano, Q. Potato peels as solid waste for the removal of heavy metal copper (II) from waste water/industrial effluent. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces 2008, 63, 116–121.
Zhu, B.; Fan, T.; Zhang, D. Adsorption of copper ions from aqueous solution by citric acid modified soybean straw. J. Hazard. Mater. 2008, 153, 300–308.
Abdić, Š.; Memić, M.; Šabanović, E.; Sulejmanović, J.; Begić, S. Adsorptive removal of eight heavy metals from aqueous solution by unmodified and modified agricultural waste: Tangerine peel. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 15, 2511–2518.
Zhang, N.; Huang, C.; Ou, S. In vitro binding capacities of three dietary fibers and their mixture for four toxic elements, cholesterol, and bile acid. J. Hazard. Mater. 2011, 186, 236–239.
Almendros, A.; Martín-Lara, M.; Ronda, A.; Pérez, A.; Blázquez, G.; Calero, M. Physico-chemical characterization of pine cone shell and its use as biosorbent and fuel. Bioresour. Technol. 2015, 196, 406–412.
Pathirana, C.; Ziyath, A.M.; Jinadasa, K.; Egodawatta, P.; Goonetilleke, A. Mathematical modelling of the influence of physico-chemical properties on heavy metal adsorption by biosorbents. Chemosphere 2020, 255, 126965.
Lyu, B.; Wang, H.; Swallah, M.S.; Fu, H.; Shen, Y.; Guo, Z.; Tong, X.; Li, Y.; Yu, H.; Jiang, L. Structure, properties and potential bioactivities of high-purity insoluble fibre from soybean dregs (Okara). Food Chem. 2021, 364, 130402.
Ma, S.; Ren, B.; Diao, Z.; Chen, Y.; Qiao, Q.; Liu, X. Physicochemical properties and intestinal protective effect of ultra-micro ground insoluble dietary fibre from carrot pomace. Food Funct. 2016, 7, 3902–3909.
Xiao, Y.; Liu, Y.; Wang, X.; Li, M.; Lei, H.; Xu, H. Cellulose nanocrystals prepared from wheat bran: Characterization and cytotoxicity assessment. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2019, 140, 225–233.
Wang, L.; Xu, H.; Yuan, F.; Fan, R.; Gao, Y. Preparation and physicochemical properties of soluble dietary fiber from orange peel assisted by steam explosion and dilute acid soaking. Food Chem. 2015, 185, 90–98.
Song, Y.; Su, W.; Mu, Y.C. Modification of bamboo shoot dietary fiber by extrusion-cellulase technology and its properties. Int. J. Food Prop. 2018, 21, 1219–1232.
Pathirana, C.; Ziyath, A.M.; Jinadasa, K.; Egodawatta, P.; Sarina, S.; Goonetilleke, A. Quantifying the influence of surface physico-chemical properties of biosorbents on heavy metal adsorption. Chemosphere 2019, 234, 488–495.
Wang, Z.; Yang, L.; Wu, J.; Zhang, H.; Zhu, L.; Zhan, X. Potential application of a low-viscosity and high-transparency xanthan gum produced from Xanthomonas campestris CCTCC M2015714 in foods. Prep. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2018, 48, 402–407.
Kartel, M.T.; Kupchik, L.A.; Veisov, B.K. Evaluation of pectin binding of heavy metal ions in aqueous solutions. Chemosphere 1999, 38, 2591–2596.
Requena, M.C.; González, C.N.A.; Barragán, L.A.P.; Correia, T.; Esquivel, J.C.C.; Herrera, R.R. Functional and physico-chemical properties of six desert-sources of dietary fiber. Food Biosci. 2016, 16, 26–31.
Zhang, Y.; Zhu, C.; Liu, F.; Yuan, Y.; Wu, H.; Li, A. Effects of ionic strength on removal of toxic pollutants from aqueous media with multifarious adsorbents: A review. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 646, 265–279.
Basiri, S.; Shekarforoush, S.S.; Mazkour, S.; Modabber, P.; Kordshouli, F.Z. Evaluating the potential of mucilaginous seed of psyllium (Plantago ovata) as a new lead biosorbent. Bioact. Carbohydr. Diet. Fibre 2020, 24, 100242.
Guiza, S. Biosorption of heavy metal from aqueous solution using cellulosic waste orange peel. Ecol. Eng. 2017, 99, 134–140.
Pal, A.; Giri, A.; Bandyopadhyay, A. Influence of hydrodynamic size and zeta potential of a novel polyelectrolyte poly (acrylic acid) grafted guar gum for adsorption of Pb (II) from acidic waste water. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2016, 4, 1731–1742.
Jain, M.; Yadav, M.; Kohout, T.; Lahtinen, M.; Garg, V.K.; Sillanpää, M. Development of iron oxide/activated carbon nanoparticle composite for the removal of Cr (VI), Cu (II) and Cd (II) ions from aqueous solution. Water Resour. Ind. 2018, 20, 54–74.
Hussain, S.; Jõudu, I.; Bhat, R. Dietary fiber from underutilized plant resources—A positive approach for valorization of fruit and vegetable wastes. Sustainability 2020, 12, 5401.
Gan, J.; Xie, L.; Peng, G.; Xie, J.; Chen, Y.; Yu, Q. Systematic review on modification methods of dietary fiber. Food Hydrocoll. 2021, 119, 106872.
Berglund, L.; Breedveld, L.; Oksman, K. Toward eco-efficient production of natural nanofibers from industrial residue: Eco-design and quality assessment. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 255, 120274.
Fayaz, G.; Soleimanian, Y.; Mhamadi, M.; Turgeon, S.L.; Khalloufi, S. The applications of conventional and innovative mechanical technologies to tailor structural and functional features of dietary fibers from plant wastes: A review. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2022, 21, 2149–2199.
Huang, J.; Liao, J.; Qi, J.; Jiang, W.; Yang, X. Structural and physicochemical properties of pectin-rich dietary fiber prepared from citrus peel. Food Hydrocoll. 2021, 110, 106140.
Xu, G.; Wang, L.; Xie, Y.; Tao, M.; Zhang, W. Highly selective and efficient adsorption of Hg2+ by a recyclable aminophosphonic acid functionalized polyacrylonitrile fiber. J. Hazard. Mater. 2018, 344, 679–688.
Garcia-Amezquita, L.E.; Tejada-Ortigoza, V.; Pérez-Carrillo, E.; Serna-Saldívar, S.O.; Campanella, O.H.; Welti-Chanes, J. Functional and compositional changes of orange peel fiber thermally-treated in a twin extruder. LWT 2019, 111, 673–681.
Wang, K.; Li, M.; Wang, Y.; Liu, Z.; Ni, Y. Effects of extraction methods on the structural characteristics and functional properties of dietary fiber extracted from kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa). Food Hydrocoll. 2021, 110, 106162.
Adegoke, K.A.; Akinnawo, S.O.; Ajala, O.A.; Adebusuyi, T.A.; Maxakato, N.W.; Bello, O.S. Progress and challenges in batch and optimization studies on the adsorptive removal of heavy metals using modified biomass-based adsorbents. Bioresour. Technol. Rep. 2022, 19, 101115.
Bhattacharya, A.; Mandal, S.; Das, S. Adsorption of Zn (II) from aqueous solution by using different adsorbents. Chem. Eng. J. 2006, 123, 43–51.
Yakout, S.; Daifullah, A.; El-Reefy, S. Adsorption of naphthalene, phenanthrene and pyrene from aqueous solution using low-cost activated carbon derived from agricultural wastes. Adsorpt. Sci. Technol. 2013, 31, 293–302.
Rastogi, S.; Tiwari, S.; Ratna, S.; Kumar, R. Utilization of agro-industrial waste for biosurfactant production under submerged fermentation and its synergistic application in biosorption of Pb2+. Bioresour. Technol. Rep. 2021, 15, 100706.
Dong, J.; Du, Y.; Duyu, R.; Shang, Y.; Zhang, S.; Han, R. Adsorption of copper ion from solution by polyethylenimine modified wheat straw. Bioresour. Technol. Rep. 2019, 6, 96–102.
Chu, J.; Zhao, H.; Lu, Z.; Lu, F.; Bie, X.; Zhang, C. Improved physicochemical and functional properties of dietary fiber from millet bran fermented by Bacillus natto. Food Chem. 2019, 294, 79–86.

© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.

Upload a video for this entry

Information

Subjects: Engineering, Environmental

Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :

Ahasanul Karim

Zarifeh Raji

Antoine Karam

Seddik Khalloufi

View Times: 347

Update Date: 01 Jun 2023

Table of Contents

Video Upload Options

Confirm