Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1 -- 1797 2023-05-18 03:32:40 |
2 layout Meta information modification 1797 2023-05-18 03:47:33 |

Video Upload Options

Do you have a full video?

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Nolan, N.; Hayward, M.W.; Klop-Toker, K.; Mahony, M.; Lemckert, F.; Callen, A. Threats to Aquatic Stage of Amphibian Life Cycle. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/44464 (accessed on 03 July 2024).
Nolan N, Hayward MW, Klop-Toker K, Mahony M, Lemckert F, Callen A. Threats to Aquatic Stage of Amphibian Life Cycle. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/44464. Accessed July 03, 2024.
Nolan, Nadine, Matthew W. Hayward, Kaya Klop-Toker, Michael Mahony, Frank Lemckert, Alex Callen. "Threats to Aquatic Stage of Amphibian Life Cycle" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/44464 (accessed July 03, 2024).
Nolan, N., Hayward, M.W., Klop-Toker, K., Mahony, M., Lemckert, F., & Callen, A. (2023, May 18). Threats to Aquatic Stage of Amphibian Life Cycle. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/44464
Nolan, Nadine, et al. "Threats to Aquatic Stage of Amphibian Life Cycle." Encyclopedia. Web. 18 May, 2023.
Threats to Aquatic Stage of Amphibian Life Cycle
Edit

The aquatic stage of biphasic amphibians typically represents a phase of rapid growth and development. For many amphibians the aquatic life cycle starts when females deposit gelatinous eggs in the water, which are externally fertilized by a male during amplexus. After a period of development, the embryos hatch and enter the larval stage.

amphibian combined conservation biphasic eggs

1. Introduction

The aquatic stage of biphasic amphibians typically represents a phase of rapid growth and development [1]. For many amphibians the aquatic life cycle starts when females deposit gelatinous eggs in the water, which are externally fertilized by a male during amplexus. After a period of development, the embryos hatch and enter the larval stage [2]. The larval stage is mainly free-living and non-reproductive, and goes through metamorphosis to reach the terrestrial stage [3]. The evolutionary persistence of the biphasic life cycle and free-living larval stage suggest a strong adaptive significance to resource acquisition and growth during this phase [3]. The life histories of biphasic amphibians generally yield high numbers of progeny with very little parental care, and only a small percentage of individuals from the larval stage make it through metamorphosis [4][5][6]. As a result, human-induced pressures that further reduce the survival of the amphibian aquatic stage can have compounding catastrophic results on the viability of a population [7][8][9]. Threats include reduced hydroperiods and increased temperatures caused by climate change [7][10][11][12][13][14], predation or competition by invasive species [15][16][17], disease [18], and pollution [19][20]. Considering the natural low survival rates in the aquatic stage [4][5][6] and the emergence of compounding anthropogenic threats, the occurrence of failed recruitment has real implications for the continued persistence of wild populations [7][20].

2. Climate Change

The embryos and larvae of amphibians are confined to the aquatic habitat they are deposited into, and while many species, such as Bufo gargarizans [15], demonstrate evolutionary adaptation to speed-up development to escape sub-optimal environments [21][22][23], others, such as the natterjack toad (Bufo calamita), do not [24][25][26]. Extreme temperature changes influenced by a shifting climate can create unfavourable conditions within ponds, leading to a reduced hydroperiod and an altered pond water chemistry [27][28]. An increased frequency of drought and extended above-average temperatures can affect the survival of embryos and larval development, but this is species-dependent as a result of thermo-tolerance thresholds and certain life history characteristics specific to certain habitats [29][30][31][32]. The plasticity of the developmental period of larval amphibians in response to altered hydroperiods and water chemistry plays an important part in the long-term viability of amphibian populations [14].
A reduced hydroperiod is a key driver of recruitment failure in pond-breeding amphibians [33][34]. Studies show that the timing and length of the hydroperiod in ephemeral ponds can have an impact on the reproductive success of many amphibians [35][36][37]. When the hydroperiod in ephemeral ponds is shorter than the required development time of larvae, then reproductive success is not reached, as the larvae desiccate as the waterbody, dries [35]. As the hydroperiod of more ephemeral ponds throughout the landscape reduces, the remaining permanent ponds and their connectivity becomes increasingly important to amphibian reproduction [38][39]. However, permanent ponds are often characterised by different water chemistry, competition, predation, and resource profiles compared to ephemeral ponds [40][41][42][43].
An increased water temperature can cause mass-mortality events at the larval and embryo stages of amphibian life cycles [44]. Amphibians exposed to increased temperature profiles, consistent with current and predicted climate trends during early larval development, may have an increased rate of mortality [45], with one study demonstrating a 100% mortality rate of the common hourglass tree frog (Polypedates cruciger) larvae at temperatures around 34 °C, and death at metamorphosis in larvae kept at 32 °C [29]. Although some amphibian species demonstrate plasticity in their thermal tolerance, enabling them to cope with extreme temperatures, thermal tolerance and acclimation capacity vary with life stage [14]. In newly emerged larvae, acclimation capacity is low and the risk of ongoing negative effects of temperature change is high [23]. Extreme temperatures can also cause sublethal negative effects at the aquatic stage by disrupting the time to and size at metamorphosis [23][29][44][46]. The rate of development and body size at metamorphosis are vital components of amphibian fitness [44] and are species-specific. Manasee et al. [29] found that elevated temperatures delayed tadpole development time and reduced body growth in the common hourglass tree frog; however, in the Asiatic toad (Bufo gargarizans), warmer temperatures resulted in a shorter larval period, and a reduced body size and hind limb length [46]. Thus, the thermal landscape influences the plastic developmental traits of many ephemeral pond-breeding amphibians, and therefore shapes the growth and development [23].
Rising temperatures also negatively affect other environmental conditions, such as the decreasing dissolved oxygen levels in ponds [47], which can cause the added stress of hypoxia at the larval stage [48]. Hypoxia has been shown to cause serious abnormalities in the central nervous system of bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus) larvae, and reduce body mass and length in exposed individuals [49]. Extreme temperatures also increase bacterial blooms in ponds, giving rise to deleterious pathogens, such as heterotrophic bacteria (Cyanobacterial lipopolysaccharide) and cyanobacterial toxins (microcystins) that can affect embryo masses and cause significant liver and intestinal toxicity in larvae [44][50]. Such changes in temperature can also compromise immunity at the larvae stage, leading to increased susceptibility to infections [51][52]. The combination of these potential impacts makes climate change a significant threat to the survival of larval amphibians.

3. Invasive Species

Invasive species cause substantial environmental damage through both direct and indirect impacts on species and populations [53][54]. At the aquatic stage in the amphibian life cycle, impacts can be direct through predation or competition, as well as indirect through the modification of habitat or alteration of larval behaviour [15][55][56][57]. Invasive plants reduce the quality of amphibian aquatic habitat by altering the physical structure of aquatic vegetation. This shift in vegetation can directly and indirectly affect the aquatic stage in amphibians by disrupting food webs, changing the chemical composition of pond water, and impacting on egg deposition and clutch structure [15][57][58]. Brown et al. [15] found that the invasive plant, Lythrum salicaria, impacted the larvae of the American toad (Bufo americanus) by direct toxicity of leached tannins. Indirect negative impacts on food webs were also observed through a tadpole gut analysis, which found reduced algal communities in ponds that supported invasives compared to non-invasive plant communities [15]. Similarly, Pinero-Rodríguez et al. [58] found that the invasive floating plant (Azolla filiculoides) altered the chemical and physical structure of Mediterranean temporary ponds by forming a dense mat over the water surface, which decreased the pH and oxygen concentration, and increased nutrients, nitrogen, and phosphorus compounds, negatively influencing tadpole survival rates in the slow-developing western spadefoot toad (Pelobates cultripes).
The effects of invasive predators on amphibian populations are well documented [16][57][59]. In the presence of the predatory invasive fish, bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) and largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), Rowe and Garcia [57] found a strong negative relationship with native amphibian counts, suggesting direct predation across the embryo and larval stage. Studies by Hamer [60] and Klop-Toker et al. [61] additionally found a negative relationship between the invasive mosquitofish (Gambusia holbrooki) and the reproduction probability of seven different frog species, including the endangered green and gold bell frog (Litoria aurea). Many species have defensive traits to help protect them from predators, such as increased tail fin depth or chemical recognition of predators. However, some species respond differently depending on whether they are exposed to a native predator or invasive predator that they do not have an evolutionary history with [59]. For the Iberian green frog, Pelophylax perezi, tadpoles detect chemical cues from native predators (dragonfly nymphs), but not invasive red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkia), demonstrating a lack of evolved predator perception to the crayfish.
Invasive anurans also negatively impact larval development rates and survivorship through exploitative competition [16][17]. Bullfrogs decreased the size of R. boylii metamorphs through resource competition during the larvae stage [17], and the presence of bullfrog larvae indirectly impacted the native red-legged frog (Rana aurora) by reducing activity levels and increasing refuge-seeking behaviour [16]. Kupferberg [17] found that predation by introduced bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana) reduced the abundance of native yellow-legged frog (Rana boylii) larvae.

4. Diseases: Chytridiomycosis

The aquatic habitat of embryos and larvae also harbours disease-causing pathogens. Most notably, the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), which causes the disease chytridiomycosis, was first linked to amphibian population declines in 1992 [62][63]. Chytridiomycosis is now considered responsible for the decline in hundreds of frog species around the world [64][65]. Bd occurs in the water and moist soil of temperate freshwater environments, and larvae become infected with its motile zoospores that penetrate the keratinised mouthparts (tooth rows and jaws) [66]. Because the area of infection is lower in larvae than the later terrestrial stages where the pathogen infects the skin [66][67], it is rarely lethal in larvae; however, it has been associated with mouthpart loss [68], and decreased activity and reduced foraging performance, causing nutrient disruptions which impact the growth and development rates [69]. Parris and Baud [70] found that exposure to Bd significantly reduced the growth and development of larvae; however, no effect was observed on survival. When larvae go through metamorphosis and start depositing keratin in other areas such as the epidermis, Bd can spread, impacting the infected metamorphosing individuals [18][71]. Metamorphosis has been identified as a highly vulnerable stage in the life cycle as immune function is reduced during this period of extreme physiological change [72][73]. As such, juveniles with immature immune systems may have a compounded susceptibility to Bd and demonstrate higher mortality rates following exposure at this stage [73][74][75].

5. Pollution and Chemical Contamination

Altered water chemistry, caused by mining, industrial, and agriculture practices, can negatively impact the aquatic stages of amphibians. Changes in pH levels and the release of coal combustion and heavy metals, such as iron, manganese, and copper, into aquatic environments have been shown to cause acute negative impacts on amphibian larvae and embryos [19][20][76][77]. Salice et al. [20] examined the population-level impacts of aquatic coal combustion residue (CCR) on the different life stages of the eastern narrow-mouth toad, (Gastrophryne carolinensis). Population models indicated that toads exposed to CCRs were more susceptible to decline and extinction compared to non-exposed toad populations [20]. Acidic rain and emissions of sulphur dioxide caused by industrial pollution have been found to cause impacts on the development and survival of amphibian larvae [76][78][79][80]. Farquharson et al. [76] found that prolonged exposure to decreased pH levels (increased acidity) resulted in decreased tadpole size and increased tadpole deformities. Increasing acidity was also found to delay metamorphosis in tadpoles. Mining practices and the run-off from tailing dams can release high levels of heavy metals, such as iron, into waterways [81][82], which can result in larval fatalities [77][83]. In agricultural fields, pesticides and fertilisers accumulate, and can become a source of contamination for nearby environments [84]. These chemicals are washed into rivers, lakes, and other waterways from the land [85]. Pesticides, such as glyphosate and atrazine, can cause acute and chronic effects on amphibians, including developmental effects and disruptions of the nervous system [86][87]. Due to the many potential anthropogenic sources of water pollution, this threat has the potential to impact many species that persist in non-protected areas.

References

  1. Wilbur, H.M. Complex life cycles. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 1980, 11, 67–93.
  2. Duellman, W.E.; Trueb, L. Biology of Amphibians; Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore, MD, USA, 1994.
  3. Wassersug, R.J. The Adaptive Significance of the Tadpole Stage with Comments on the Maintenance of Complex Life Cycles in Anurans. Am. Zool. 1975, 15, 405–417.
  4. Calef, G.W. Natural mortality of tadpoles in a population of Rana aurora. Ecology 1973, 54, 741–758.
  5. Melvin, S.D.; Houlahan, J.E. Tadpole mortality varies across experimental venues: Do laboratory populations predict responses in nature? Oecologia 2012, 169, 861–868.
  6. Anstis, M. Frogs and Tadpoles of Australia; New Holland Publishers: Chatswood, NSW, Australia, 2018.
  7. Brooks, G.C.; Kindsvater, H.K. Early Development Drives Variation in Amphibian Vulnerability to Global Change. Front. Ecol. Evol. 2022, 10, 813414.
  8. Biek, R.; Funk, W.C.; Maxell, B.A.; Mills, L.S. What Is Missing in Amphibian Decline Research: Insights from Ecological Sensitivity Analysis. Conserv. Biol. 2002, 16, 728–734.
  9. Székely, D.; Cogălniceanu, D.; Székely, P.; Armijos-Ojeda, D.; Espinosa-Mogrovejo, V.; Denoël, M. How to recover from a bad start: Size at metamorphosis affects growth and survival in a tropical amphibian. BMC Ecol. 2020, 20, 24.
  10. Anderson, T.L.; Ousterhout, B.H.; Peterman, W.E.; Drake, D.L.; Semlitsch, R.D. Life history differences influence the impacts of drought on two pond-breeding salamanders. Ecol. Appl. 2015, 25, 1896–1910.
  11. Dodd, C.K. The effects of drought on population-structure, activity, and orientation of toads (Bufo quercicus and B. terrestris) at a temporary pond. Ethol. Ecol. Evol. 1994, 6, 331–349.
  12. Gervasi, S.S.; Foufopoulos, J. Costs of plasticity: Responses to desiccation decrease post-metamorphic immune function in a pond-breeding amphibian. Funct. Ecol. 2008, 22, 100–108.
  13. Lawler, J.J.; Shafer, S.L.; Bancroft, B.A.; Blaustein, A.R. Projected Climate Impacts for the Amphibians of the Western Hemisphere. Conserv. Biol. 2010, 24, 38–50.
  14. Ruthsatz, K.; Dausmann, K.H.; Peck, M.A.; Glos, J. Thermal tolerance and acclimation capacity in the European common frog (Rana temporaria) change throughout ontogeny. J. Exp. Zool. Part A Ecol. Integr. Physiol. 2022, 337, 477–490.
  15. Brown, C.J.; Blossey, B.; Maerz, J.C.; Joule, S.J. Invasive plant and experimental venue affect tadpole performance. Biol. Invasions 2006, 8, 327–338.
  16. Kiesecker, J.M.; Blaustein, A.R. Population differences in responses of red-legged frogs (Rana aurora) to introduce bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana). Ecology 1997, 78, 1752–1760.
  17. Kupferberg, S.J. Bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) invasion of a California river: The role of larval competition. Ecology 1997, 78, 1736–1751.
  18. Van Rooij, P.; Martel, A.; Haesebrouck, F.; Pasmans, F. Amphibian chytridiomycosis: A review with focus on fungus-host interactions. Vet. Res. 2015, 46, 137.
  19. Calfee, R.D.; Little, E.E. Toxicity of cadmium, copper, and zinc to the threatened Chiricahua leopard frog (Lithobates chiricahuensis). Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2017, 99, 679–683.
  20. Salice, C.J.; Rowe, C.L.; Pechmann, J.H.K.; Hopkins, W.A. Multiple stressors and complex life cycles: Insights from a population-level assessment of breeding site contamination and terrestrial habitat loss in an amphibian. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2011, 30, 2874–2882.
  21. Rudolf, V.H.W.; Rödel, M.-O. Phenotypic plasticity and optimal timing of metamorphosis under uncertain time constraints. Evol. Ecol. 2007, 21, 121–142.
  22. Laurila, A.; Pakkasmaa, S.; Merilä, J. Influence of seasonal time constraints on growth and development of common frog tadpoles: A photoperiod experiment. Oikos 2001, 95, 451–460.
  23. Ruthsatz, K.; Peck, M.A.; Dausmann, K.H.; Sabatino, N.M.; Glos, J. Patterns of temperature induced developmental plasticity in anuran larvae. J. Therm. Biol. 2018, 74, 123–132.
  24. Tejedo, M.; Marangoni, F.; Pertoldi, C.; Richter-Boix, A.; Laurila, A.; Orizaola, G.; Nicieza, A.G.; Álvarez, D.; Gomez-Mestre, I. Contrasting effects of environmental factors during larval stage on morphological plasticity in post-metamorphic frogs. Clim. Res. 2010, 43, 31–39.
  25. Brady, L.D.; Griffiths, R.A. Developmental responses to pond desiccation in tadpoles of the British anuran amphibians (Bufo bufo, B. calamita and Rana temporaria). J. Zool. 2000, 252, 61–69.
  26. Amburgey, S.; Funk, C.W.; Murphy, M.; Muths, E. Effects of hydroperiod duration on survival, development rate, and size at metamorphosis in boreal chorus frog tadpoles (Pseudacris maculata). Herpetologica 2012, 68, 456–467.
  27. Mansoor, S.; Farooq, I.; Kachroo, M.M.; Mahmoud, A.E.D.; Fawzy, M.; Popescu, S.M.; Alyemeni, M.N.; Sonne, C.; Rinklebe, J.; Ahmad, P. Elevation in wildfire frequencies with respect to the climate change. J. Environ. Manag. 2022, 301, 113769.
  28. Parente, J.; Amraoui, M.; Menezes, I.; Pereira, M.G. Drought in Portugal: Current regime, comparison of indices and impacts on extreme wildfires. Sci. Total Environ. 2019, 685, 150–173.
  29. Manasee, W.A.; Weerathunga, T.; Rajapaksa, G. The impact of elevated temperature and CO2 on growth, physiological and immune responses of Polypedates cruciger (common hourglass tree frog). Front. Zool. 2020, 17, 3.
  30. Von May, R.; Catenazzi, A.; Santa-Cruz, R.; Gutierrez, A.S.; Moritz, C.; Rabosky, D.L. Thermal physiological traits in tropical lowland amphibians: Vulnerability to climate warming and cooling. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0219759.
  31. Delgado-Suazo, P.; Burrowes, P.A. Response to thermal and hydric regimes point to differential inter- and intraspecific vulnerability of tropical amphibians to climate warming. J. Therm. Biol. 2022, 103, 103148.
  32. Díaz-Ricaurte, J.C.; Serrano, F.C.; Martins, M. VTMaxHerp: A data set of voluntary thermal maximum temperatures of amphibians and reptiles from two Brazilian hotspots. Ecology 2022, 103, e3602.
  33. Mathwin, R.; Wassens, S.; Young, J.; Ye, Q.; Bradshaw, C.J.A. Manipulating water for amphibian conservation. Conserv. Biol. 2021, 35, 24–34.
  34. Chandler, H.C.; Rypel, A.L.; Jiao, Y.; Haas, C.A.; Gorman, T.A. Hindcasting historical breeding conditions for an endangered salamander in ephemeral wetlands of the Southeastern USA: Implications of climate change. PLoS ONE 2016, 11, e0150169.
  35. Richter, S.C.; Young, J.E.; Johnson, G.N.; Seigel, R.A. Stochastic variation in reproductive success of a rare frog, Rana sevosa: Implications for conservation and for monitoring amphibian populations. Biol. Conserv. 2003, 111, 171–177.
  36. Rowe, C.L.; Dunson, W.A. Impacts of hydroperiod on growth and survival of larval amphibians in temporary ponds of Central Pennsylvania, USA. Oecologia 1995, 102, 397–403.
  37. Pechmann, J.H.K.; Scott, D.E.; Gibbons, J.W.; Semlitsch, R.D. Influence of wetland hydroperiod on diversity and abundance of metamorphosing juvenile amphibians. Wetl. Ecol. Manag. 1989, 1, 3–11.
  38. Ashpole, S.L.; Bishop, C.A.; Murphy, S.D. Reconnecting Amphibian Habitat through Small Pond Construction and Enhancement, South Okanagan River Valley, British Columbia, Canada. Diversity 2018, 10, 108.
  39. Goldspiel, H.B.; Cohen, J.B.; McGee, G.G.; Gibbs, J.P. Forest land-use history affects outcomes of habitat augmentation for amphibian conservation. Glob. Ecol. Conserv. 2019, 19, e00686.
  40. Simpkins, C.A.; Castley, J.G.; Shuker, J.D.; Morrison, C.; Hero, J.-M. Battling habitat loss: Suitability of anthropogenic waterbodies for amphibians associated with naturally acidic, oligotrophic environments. Pac. Conserv. Biol. 2022, 28, 174–183.
  41. Simpkins, C.A.; Shuker, J.D.; Lollback, G.W.; Castley, J.G.; Hero, J.-M. Environmental variables associated with the distribution and occupancy of habitat specialist tadpoles in naturally acidic, oligotrophic waterbodies. Austral Ecol. 2014, 39, 95–105.
  42. Babbitt, K.J.; Baber, M.J.; Tarr, T.L. Patterns of larval amphibian distribution along a wetland hydroperiod gradient. Can. J. Zool. 2003, 81, 1539–1552.
  43. Jocqué, M.; Graham, T.; Brendonck, L. Local structuring factors of invertebrate communities in ephemeral freshwater rock pools and the influence of more permanent water bodies in the region. Hydrobiologia 2007, 592, 271–280.
  44. Ujszegi, J.; Bertalan, R.; Ujhegyi, N.; Verebélyi, V.; Nemesházi, E.; Mikó, Z.; Kásler, A.; Herczeg, D.; Szederkényi, M.; Vili, N.; et al. “Heat waves” experienced during larval life have species-specific consequences on life-history traits and sexual development in anuran amphibians. Sci. Total Environ. 2022, 835, 155297.
  45. Carey, C.; Alexander, M.A. Climate change and amphibian declines: Is there a link? Divers. Distrib. 2003, 9, 111–121.
  46. Ren, C.; Teng, Y.; Shen, Y.; Yao, Q.; Wang, H. Altered temperature affect body condition and endochondral ossification in Bufo gargarizans tadpoles. J. Therm. Biol. 2021, 99, 103020.
  47. Fang, X.; Stefan, H.G. Simulations of climate effects on water temperature, dissolved oxygen, and ice and snow covers in lakes of the contiguous United States under past and future climate scenarios. Limnol. Ocean. 2009, 54, 2359–2370.
  48. Lushchak, V.I. Environmentally induced oxidative stress in aquatic animals. Aquat. Toxicol. 2011, 101, 13–30.
  49. Lima, I.B.; Da Silva, N.G.; Machado, J.R.; Machado, J.F.F.; Rivaroli, L. Histological changes in the bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus) myocardium induced by severe hypoxia during embryonic development. Biológia 2021, 76, 1529–1534.
  50. Su, R.C.; Meyers, C.M.; Warner, E.A.; Garcia, J.A.; Refsnider, J.M.; Lad, A.; Breidenbach, J.D.; Modyanov, N.; Malhotra, D.; Haller, S.T.; et al. Harmful Algal Bloom Toxicity in Lithobates catesbeiana Tadpoles. Toxins 2020, 12, 378.
  51. Raffel, T.R.; Rohr, J.R.; Kiesecker, J.M.; Hudson, P.J. Negative effects of changing temperature on amphibian immunity under field conditions. Funct. Ecol. 2006, 20, 819–828.
  52. Turner, A.; Wassens, S.; Heard, G.; Peters, A. Temperature as a driver of the pathogenicity and virulence of amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis: A systematic review. J. Wildl. Dis. 2021, 57, 477–494.
  53. Mack, R.N. Predicting the identity and fate of plant invaders: Emergent and emerging approaches. Biol. Conserv. 1996, 78, 107–121.
  54. Pimentel, D.; Zuniga, R.; Morrison, D. Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States. Ecol. Econ. 2004, 52, 273–288.
  55. Pimm, S.L.; Jenkins, C.N.; Abell, R.; Brooks, T.M.; Gittleman, J.L.; Joppa, L.N.; Raven, P.H.; Roberts, C.M.; Sexton, J.O. The biodiversity of species and their rates of extinction, distribution, and protection. Science 2014, 344, 1246752.
  56. D’Amore, A.; Kirby, E.; McNicholas, M. Invasive species shifts ontogenetic resource partitioning and microhabitat use of a threatened native amphibian. Aquat. Conserv. Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 2009, 19, 534–541.
  57. Rowe, J.C.; Garcia, T.S. Impacts of Wetland Restoration Efforts on an Amphibian Assemblage in a Multi-invader Community. Wetlands 2014, 34, 141–153.
  58. Pinero-Rodríguez, M.J.; Fernández-Zamudio, R.; Arribas, R.; Gomez-Mestre, I.; Díaz-Paniagua, C. The invasive aquatic fern Azolla filiculoides negatively impacts water quality, aquatic vegetation and amphibian larvae in Mediterranean environments. Biol. Invasions 2021, 23, 755–769.
  59. Gomez-Mestre, I.; Díaz-Paniagua, C. Invasive predatory crayfish do not trigger inducible defences in tadpoles. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 2011, 278, 3364–3370.
  60. Hamer, A.J. Exotic predatory fish reduce amphibian reproduction at wetlands in an urbanising landscape. Hydrobiologia 2022, 849, 121–139.
  61. Klop-Toker, K.; Valdez, J.; Stockwell, M.; Clulow, S.; Clulow, J.; Mahony, M. Community level impacts of invasive mosquitofish may exacerbate the impact to a threatened amphibian. Austral Ecol. 2018, 43, 213–224.
  62. Wake, D.B. Action on amphibians. Trends Ecol. Evol. 1998, 13, 379–380.
  63. Speare, R.; Field, K.; Koehler, J.; McDonald, K.R. “Disapperaing” Australian rainforest frogs: Have we found the answer? In Proceedings of the Second World Congress of Herpetology, Adelaide, SA, Australia, 29 December 1993–6 January 1994.
  64. Scheele, B.C.; Pasmans, F.; Skerratt, L.F.; Berger, L.; Martel, A.; Beukema, W.; Acevedo, A.A.; Burrowes, P.A.; Carvalho, T.; Catenazzi, A.; et al. Amphibian fungal panzootic causes catastrophic and ongoing loss of biodiversity. Science 2019, 363, 1459–1463.
  65. O’Hanlon, S.J.; Rieux, A.; Farrer, R.A.; Rosa, G.M.; Waldman, B.; Bataille, A.; Kosch, T.A.; Murray, K.A.; Brankovics, B.; Fumagalli, M.; et al. Recent Asian origin of chytrid fungi causing global amphibian declines. Science 2018, 360, 621–627.
  66. Marantelli, G.; Berger, L.; Speare, R.; Keegan, L. Distribution of the amphibian chytrid Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and keratin during tadpole development. Pac. Conserv. Biol. 2004, 10, 173–179.
  67. Blaustein, A.R.; Romansic, J.M.; Scheessele, E.A.; Han, B.A.; Pessier, A.P.; Longcore, J.E. Interspecific variation in susceptibility of frog tadpoles to the pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Conserv. Biol. 2005, 19, 1460–1468.
  68. Cashins, S.D. Epidemiology of Chytridiomycosis in Rainforest Stream Tadpoles; James Cook University: Townsville, QLD, Australia, 2009.
  69. Venesky, M.D.; Parris, M.J.; Storfer, A. Impacts of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection on tadpole foraging performance. EcoHealth 2009, 6, 565–575.
  70. Parris, M.J.; Baud, D.R. Interactive Effects of a Heavy Metal and Chytridiomycosis on Gray Treefrog Larvae (Hyla chrysoscelis). Copeia 2004, 2004, 344–350.
  71. Rachowicz, L.J.; Vredenburg, V.T. Transmission of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis within and between amphibian life stages. Dis. Aquat. Org. 2004, 61, 75–83.
  72. Robert, J.; Ohta, Y. Comparative and developmental study of the immune system in Xenopus. Dev. Dyn. 2009, 238, 1249–1270.
  73. Humphries, J.E.; Lanctôt, C.M.; Robert, J.; McCallum, H.I.; Newell, D.A.; Grogan, L.F. Do immune system changes at metamorphosis predict vulnerability to chytridiomycosis? An update. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 2022, 136, 104510.
  74. Abu Bakar, A.; Bower, D.S.; Stockwell, M.P.; Clulow, S.; Clulow, J.; Mahony, M.J. Susceptibility to disease varies with ontogeny and immunocompetence in a threatened amphibian. Oecologia 2016, 181, 997–1009.
  75. Sauer, E.L.; Cohen, J.M.; Lajeunesse, M.J.; McMahon, T.A.; Civitello, D.J.; Knutie, S.A.; Nguyen, K.; Roznik, E.A.; Sears, B.F.; Bessler, S.; et al. A meta-analysis reveals temperature, dose, life stage, and taxonomy influence host susceptibility to a fungal parasite. Ecology 2020, 101, e02979.
  76. Farquharson, C.; Wepener, V.; Smit, N.J. Acute and chronic effects of acidic pH on four subtropical frog species. Water SA 2016, 42, 52–62.
  77. Porter, K.R.; Hakanson, D.E. Toxicity of mine drainage to embryonic and larval boreal toads (Bufonidae: Bufo boreas). Copeia 1976, 1976, 327–331.
  78. Mphepya, J.N.; Pienaar, J.J.; Galy-Lacaux, C.; Held, G.; Turner, C.R. Precipitation Chemistry in Semi-Arid Areas of Southern Africa: A Case Study of a Rural and an Industrial Site. J. Atmos. Chem. 2004, 47, 1–24.
  79. Leuven, R.S.E.W.; den Hartog, C.; Christiaans, M.M.C.; Heijligers, W.H.C. Effects of water acidification on the distribution pattern and the reproductive success of amphibians. Experientia 1986, 42, 495–503.
  80. Dolmen, D.; Finstad, A.G.; Skei, J.K. Amphibian recovery after a decrease in acidic precipitation. Ambio 2018, 47, 355–367.
  81. Gorissen, S.; Greenlees, M.; Shine, R. A skink out of water: Impacts of anthropogenic disturbance on an Endangered reptile in Australian highland swamps. Oryx 2017, 51, 610–618.
  82. Holla, L.; Barclay, E. Mine Subsidence on the Southern Coalfield New South Wales; New South Wales Department of Mineral Resources: Sydney, NSW, Australia, 2000; 118p.
  83. Shuhaimi-Othman, M.; Nadzifah, Y.; Umirah, N.S.; Ahmad, A.K. Toxicity of metals to tadpoles of the common Sunda toad, Duttaphrynus melanostictus. Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 2012, 94, 364–376.
  84. Lakhani, L. How to reduce impact of pesticides in aquatic environment. Soc. Issues Environ. Probl. 2015, 3, 29–38.
  85. Boudh, S.; Singh, J.S. Pesticide Contamination: Environmental Problems and Remediation Strategies. In Emerging and Eco-Friendly Approaches for Waste Management; Bharagava, R.N., Chowdhary, P., Eds.; Springer: Singapore, 2019; pp. 245–269.
  86. Relyea, R.A. The leathal impacts of roundup on aquatic and terrestrial amphibians. Ecol. Appl. 2005, 15, 1118–1124.
  87. Rohr, J.R.; Schotthoefer, A.M.; Raffel, T.R.; Carrick, H.J.; Halstead, N.; Hoverman, J.T.; Johnson, C.M.; Johnson, L.B.; Lieske, C.; Piwoni, M.D.; et al. Agrochemicals increase trematode infections in a declining amphibian species. Nature 2008, 455, 1235–1239.
More
Information
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register : , , , , ,
View Times: 545
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 18 May 2023
1000/1000
Video Production Service