Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Ollie Yiru Yu
 -- 1425 2023-05-12 09:31:32 |
2 Format correct
Wendy Huang
 Meta information modification 1425 2023-05-12 12:29:34 |

Video Upload Options

We provide professional Video Production Services to translate complex research into visually appealing presentations. Would you like to try it?
No, upload directly Yes

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Zaeneldin, A.; Chu, C.; Yu, O.Y. Silver-Containing Solutions for Deep Caries Management. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/44191 (accessed on 16 November 2024).
Zaeneldin A, Chu C, Yu OY. Silver-Containing Solutions for Deep Caries Management. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/44191. Accessed November 16, 2024.
Zaeneldin, Ahmed, Chun-Hung Chu, Ollie Yiru Yu. "Silver-Containing Solutions for Deep Caries Management" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/44191 (accessed November 16, 2024).
Zaeneldin, A., Chu, C., & Yu, O.Y. (2023, May 12). Silver-Containing Solutions for Deep Caries Management. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/44191
Zaeneldin, Ahmed, et al. "Silver-Containing Solutions for Deep Caries Management." Encyclopedia. Web. 12 May, 2023.
Silver-Containing Solutions for Deep Caries Management
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/dj11050114

Silver is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent that can be used for caries management. Dentists used silver-containing solutions for deep cavity disinfection before restoration. Silver fluoride, silver nitrate, silver diamine nitrate, silver diamine fluoride, and nano-silver fluoride were used in deep cavities for antimicrobial purposes. Indirect silver fluoride application induced pulp inflammation and reparative dentine in most cases, and pulp necrosis in some cases. Direct silver nitrate application caused blood clots and a wide inflammatory band in the pulp, whilst indirect silver nitrate application caused hypoplasia in shallow cavities and partial pulp necrosis in deep cavities. Direct silver diamine fluoride application induced pulp necrosis, while indirect silver diamine fluoride application induced a mild inflammatory response and reparative dentine formation.

Silver Fluoride Silver Nitrate Silver Diamine Nitrate Silver Diamine Fluoride Nano Silver Fluoride

1. Introduction

The main properties of various silver-containing solutions are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Properties of silver-containing solutions for deep caries management.
Solution [Ref.] Wt.% (Concentration According to Manufacturer(s)) Anticaries Properties
Silver fluoride [1][2] 40% (Ag: 340,000 ppm; F: 60,000 ppm)
-
Inhibits growth of cariogenic bacteria
-
Prevents demineralization
-
Promotes remineralization
Silver nitrate [3] 25% (Ag: 151,130 ppm)
-
Inhibits growth of cariogenic bacteria
Silver diamine nitrate [4] 48% (Ag: 319,914 ppm *)
-
Inhibits growth of cariogenic bacteria
Silver diamine fluoride [5] 12% (Ag: 80,170 ppm; F: 14,150 ppm)
-
Inhibits growth of cariogenic bacteria
-
Prevents demineralization
-
Promotes remineralization
30% (Ag: 200,400 ppm; F: 35,400 ppm)
38% (Ag: 253,900 ppm; F: 44,800 ppm)
Nano-silver fluoride [6] 1.05% * (Ag: 399.33 ppm; F: 10,147 ppm)
-
Inhibits growth of cariogenic bacteria
-
Prevents demineralization
-
Promotes remineralization
* By calculation.

2. Silver Fluoride

The 40% silver fluoride solution was used for deep caries management. The 40% silver fluoride solution contained 34% silver and 6% fluoride. According to this percentage, the fluoride content was supposed to be 59,900 ppm [1]. The chemical analysis of the components of two silver fluoride products found that the fluoride content was higher than expected, ranging from 78,000 to 120,000 ppm [1][7]. As a result of these findings, Gotjamanos & Afonso [7] recommended that the use of silver fluoride in paediatric dentistry be discontinued because these unacceptably high fluoride levels pose a potential risk of toxicity to children and, if it enters the bloodstream, it might result in fluorosis, especially in the case of an undetected pulp exposure [2]. Silver fluoride has antibacterial and remineralising properties. The silver ions present in the silver fluoride act in two different ways: (1) their bactericidal/bacteriostatic effect on the microorganisms present in the carious lesion; (2) mechanical sealing of the carious and sound dentinal tubules [8]. Silver fluoride is used as a cavity conditioner in conjunction with glass ionomer cement as an atraumatic restorative method. After partial caries excavation, silver fluoride is applied, and then the cavity is sealed with a glass ionomer cement restoration. Silver fluoride showed a 100% success rate in 400,000 cases treated at the Dentistry School of Western Australia University [8]. The treatment success was based solely on the absence of symptoms.

3. Silver Nitrate

The first use of silver nitrate was reported around 1846 [7]. The results, reported by Stebbins in 1891, shed light on the clinical significance of silver nitrate [9]. It was mainly used to arrest dental caries and sterilize cavities because of its escharotic, dehydrating, and sclerosing properties [10]. Silver nitrate is acidic in nature, and it causes protein coagulation [11]. In 1917, Howe introduced ammoniacal silver nitrate by adding ammonium hydroxide to silver nitrate [12]. The addition of the ammonium hydroxide converted the acidic silver nitrate into a solution with an alkaline nature, limiting its irritating action [7]. The new compound, which contained 25% silver nitrate, was later known as Howe’s solution and was widely used by practitioners.
The nature of dental caries as a noncommunicable disease rather than an infectious disease made the idea of the sole application of silver nitrate debatable. The results of various studies regarding the efficacy of silver nitrate in the prevention of dental caries have not revealed any significant reduction in caries incidence compared to no treatment [13][14][15]. Other studies examined the efficacy of silver nitrate in arresting carious lesions and reported that it can arrest caries on both permeant and primary dentition [15][16]. The use of silver nitrate in preventing/arresting dental caries decreased significantly after fluoride was introduced [10]. In 2015, silver nitrate was used in conjugation with sodium fluoride, and the reported results exhibited effectiveness in arresting dental caries [17].

4. Silver Diamine Nitrate

Silver diamine nitrate was developed from silver nitrate. The 48% silver diamine nitrate solution was proposed to act as a less expensive alternative to silver diamine fluoride in regions with lower and middle-income economies as it lacks the fluoride component. There is a delay in the mineral induction time of silver nitrate, which affects its remineralization potential [18]. The addition of the diamine group to silver nitrate stabilizes the silver ions, and it is expected to enhance its mineralization potential [4]. When the silver diamine nitrate is applied to a dentine surface, it reacts with the ions present in the environment and produces silver phosphate and silver oxide. The silver compounds may readily react with the chloride in the environment, resulting in the formation of less soluble silver chloride [19][20]. In the presence of silver salts, demineralized dentine becomes harder and dentinal tubules become blocked, preventing any further progress of the acidic by-products responsible for demineralization [19]. The efficacy of silver diamine nitrate in caries control has not yet been reported.

5. Silver Diamine Fluoride

Introduced by Dr Nishino and Dr Yamaga in the 1950s, silver diamine fluoride (SDF) has been used for arresting caries, preventing secondary caries, and decreasing hypersensitivity [21]. Commercial SDF products are available in various concentrations (3.8%, 10%, 12%, 30%, and 38%). Solutions in all of these concentrations are suitable for use as anticaries solutions, with the exception of the 3.8% solution, which is intended for root canal therapy. Silver diamine fluoride is an alkaline solution with a high concentration of fluoride and silver ions [22]. Fluoride changes the hydroxyapatite into fluorapatite, which is more resistant to acid dissolution, so it can remineralise the caries-affected dental hard tissues [23]. In addition, it has an antimicrobial effect on the plaque biofilm [24]. Silver, the other main component of silver diamine fluoride, is well known for its strong antimicrobial effect which helps in sterilizing the infected tissues, and it blocks the dentinal tubules to seal them from microorganisms and their by-products [25]. Combing both silver and fluoride in one solution so they can perform their actions synergistically resulted in the superior results achieved by the silver diamine fluoride. Despite its effectiveness, silver diamine fluoride usage for arresting caries is still an off-label usage in many countries, where it is used only as a desensitizing agent. Silver diamine fluoride requires only topical application to achieve its effect. This ease of use has led to its widespread use among practitioners recently, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic [26]. The World Health Organization’s Center for Quality Improvement and Evidence-Based Dentistry introduced safer aerosol-free emergent dentistry as a protocol for caries management [27]. Silver diamine fluoride was the first choice in this protocol for the treatment of caries and toothache related to caries, as its use can prevent cross-infection. The effectiveness of silver diamine fluoride in caries control has been proved in many previous studies [28][29][30].

6. Nano Silver Fluoride

Silver nanoparticles have been introduced in dentistry for multiple applications, including caries management [31]. The antibacterial effect of silver nanoparticles relies on their large contact area with the microorganisms due to their nanometric particle size [32]. Silver ions can be continuously released by the silver nanoparticles [33]. This disrupts the permeability and respiration of the bacteria by binding to the sulphur proteins in the cytoplasmic membrane and cell wall [34][35][36]. A further instance of this is the detection of reactive oxygen species inside bacterial cells. Reactive oxygen species elevate the oxidative stresses and damage the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) [36][37]. In addition, the interaction of the DNA’s sulphur and phosphorus, with silver ions, can create issues with DNA replication and cell reproduction, and can even cause microorganism death [38]. The denaturation of the cytoplasmic proteins is another effect of silver ions [39]. Moreover, silver nanoparticles can kill bacteria themselves by accumulating in the pits that form the cell wall after attaching to the cell surface [40]. Furthermore, silver nanoparticles can disrupt bacterial signal transduction, resulting in a decrease in proliferation and cell apoptosis [41]. Fluoride solutions, combined with silver nanoparticles, proved the capability to remineralise carious lesions [42]. Therefore, silver nanoparticles, in the form of nano-silver fluoride, have been developed for caries management [43]. The effectiveness of nano-silver fluoride as a cariostatic agent was investigated by dos Santos et al. [44]. They found that active caries decreased by 50% at 12 months after a single application of nano-silver fluoride [44]. Nagireddy et al. conducted another study in which nano-silver fluoride was applied to dentinal caries, and 65.21% of the carious lesions were arrested after a 1-year follow-up [45].

References

  1. Gotjamanos, T.; Afonso, F. Unacceptably high levels of fluoride in commercial preparations of silver fluoride. Aust. Dent. J. 1997, 42, 52–53.
  2. Gotjamanos, T.; Orton, V. Fluorideion concentration in 40 per cent silver fluoride solutions determined by ion selective electrode and ion chromatography techniques. Aust. Dent. J. 1998, 43, 55–56.
  3. Zhao, I.S.; Mei, M.L.; Li, Q.-L.; Lo, E.C.M.; Chu, C.-H. Arresting simulated dentine caries with adjunctive application of silver nitrate solution and sodium fluoride varnish: An In Vitro study. Int. Dent. J. 2017, 67, 206–214.
  4. Srisomboon, S.; Kettratad, M.; Stray, A.; Pakawanit, P.; Rojviriya, C.; Patntirapong, S.; Panpisut, P. Effects of Silver Diamine Nitrate and Silver Diamine Fluoride on Dentin Remineralization and Cytotoxicity to Dental Pulp Cells: An In Vitro Study. J. Funct. Biomater. 2022, 13, 16.
  5. Mei, M.L.; Chu, C.H.; Lo, E.C.M.; Samaranayake, L.P. Fluoride and silver concentrations of silver diammine fluoride solutions for dental use. Int. J. Paediatr. Dent. 2012, 23, 279–285.
  6. Targino, A.G.R.; Flores, M.A.P.; Junior, V.E.D.S.; Bezerra, F.D.G.B.; Freire, H.D.L.; Galembeck, A.; Rosenblatt, A. An innovative approach to treating dental decay in children. A new anti-caries agent. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Med. 2014, 25, 2041–2047.
  7. Gardner, A.F.; Higel, R.W. An evaluation of agents used in cavity sterilization. Aust. Dent. J. 1962, 7, 53–61.
  8. Gotjamanos, T. Pulp response in primary teeth with deep residual caries treated with silver fluoride and glass ionomer cement (‘atraumatic’ technique). Aust. Dent. J. 1996, 41, 328–334.
  9. Stebbins, E. What value has argenti nitras as a therapeutic agent in dentistry? Int. Dent. J. 1891, 12, 661–670.
  10. Moyer, C.; Brentano, L.; Gravens, D.; Margraf, H.; Monafo, W. Treatment of large human burns with 0.5% silver nitrate solution. Arch. Surg. 1965, 90, 812–867.
  11. Bauer, M.; Balogh, D.; Kompatscher, P. 10% Silver nitrate solution for topical treatment in scalding. Chir. Plast. 1984, 8, 25–36.
  12. Howe, P.R. A method of sterilizing and at the same time impregnating with a metal affected dentinal tissue. Dent. Cosm. 1917, 59, 891–904.
  13. Klein, H.; Knutson, J.W. XIII. Effect of Ammoniacal Silver Nitrate on Caries in the First Permanent Molar. J. Am. Dent. Assoc. 1942, 29, 1420–1426.
  14. James, P.; Parfitt, G. A clinical note on the use of silver nitrate in the prevention of fissure caries in newly erupted first permanant molars. Br. Dent. J. 1954, 96, 35–36.
  15. Schultz-Haudt, S.; Taylor, R.; Brudevold, F. Silver nitrate treatment of proximal caries in primary molars. J. Dent. Child. 1956, 23, 184–186.
  16. Hyde, E.J. Caries-inhibiting action of three different topically-applied agents on incipient lesions in newly erupted teeth: Results after 24 months. J. Can. Dent. Assoc. 1973, 39, 189–193.
  17. Chu, C.-H.; Gao, S.S.; Li, S.K.; Wong, M.C.; Lo, E.C. The effectiveness of the biannual application of silver nitrate solution followed by sodium fluoride varnish in arresting early childhood caries in preschool children: Study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Trials 2015, 16, 426.
  18. Saito, T.; Toyooka, H.; Ito, S.; Crenshaw, M.A. In vitro Study of Remineralization of Dentin: Effects of Ions on Mineral Induction by Decalcified Dentin Matrix. Caries Res. 2003, 37, 445–449.
  19. Mei, M.L.; Nudelman, F.; Marzec, B.; Walker, J.; Lo, E.; Walls, A.; Chu, C. Formation of Fluorohydroxyapatite with Silver Diamine Fluoride. J. Dent. Res. 2017, 96, 1122–1128.
  20. Mei, M.L.; Ito, L.; Cao, Y.; Li, Q.; Lo, E.C.; Chu, C. Inhibitory effect of silver diamine fluoride on dentine demineralisation and collagen degradation. J. Dent. 2013, 41, 809–817.
  21. Nishino, M.; Yoshida, S.; Sobue, S.; Kato, J.; Nishida, M. Effect of topically applied ammoniacal silver fluoride on dental caries in children. J. Osaka Univ. Dent. Sch. 1969, 9, 149–155.
  22. Zaeneldin, A.; Yu, O.Y.; Chu, C.-H. Effect of silver diamine fluoride on vital dental pulp: A systematic review. J. Dent. 2022, 119, 104066.
  23. Barillo, D.J.; Marx, D.E. Silver in medicine: A brief history BC 335 to present. Burns 2014, 40 (Suppl. 1), S3–S8.
  24. Mitwalli, H.; Mourao, M.D.; Dennison, J.; Yaman, P.; Paster, B.J.; Fontana, M. Effect of Silver Diamine Fluoride Treatment on Microbial Profiles of Plaque Biofilms from Root/Cervical Caries Lesions. Caries Res. 2019, 53, 555–566.
  25. Chopra, I. The increasing use of silver-based products as antimicrobial agents: A useful development or a cause for concern? J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2007, 59, 587–590.
  26. Natarajan, D. Silver Modified Atraumatic Restorative Technique: A Way Towards “SMART” Pediatric Dentistry During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Front. Dent. 2022, 19, 12.
  27. Benzian, H.; Niederman, R. A Dental Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic—Safer Aerosol-Free Emergent (SAFER) Dentistry. Front. Med. 2020, 7, 520.
  28. Oliveira, B.H.; Rajendra, A.; Veitz-Keenan, A.; Niederman, R. The Effect of Silver Diamine Fluoride in Preventing Caries in the Primary Dentition: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Caries Res. 2018, 53, 24–32.
  29. Tirupathi, S.P.; Svsg, N.; Rajasekhar, S.; Nuvvula, S. Comparative cariostatic efficacy of a novel Nano-silver fluoride varnish with 38% silver diamine fluoride varnish a double-blind randomized clinical trial. J. Clin. Exp. Dent. 2019, 11, e105–e112.
  30. Seifo, N.; Cassie, H.; Radford, J.R.; Innes, N.P.T. Silver diamine fluoride for managing carious lesions: An umbrella review. BMC Oral Health 2019, 19, 145.
  31. Noronha, V.T.; Paula, A.J.; Durán, G.; Galembeck, A.; Cogo-Müller, K.; Franz-Montan, M.; Durán, N. Silver nanoparticles in dentistry. Dent. Mater. 2017, 33, 1110–1126.
  32. Lung, C.Y.K.; Abdalla, M.M.; Chu, C.H.; Yin, I.; Got, S.-R.; Matinlinna, J.P. A Multi-Element-Doped Porous Bioactive Glass Coating for Implant Applications. Materials 2021, 14, 961.
  33. Kittler, S.; Greulich, C.; Diendorf, J.; Köller, M.; Epple, M. Toxicity of Silver Nanoparticles Increases during Storage Because of Slow Dissolution under Release of Silver Ions. Chem. Mater. 2010, 22, 4548–4554.
  34. Khorrami, S.; Zarrabi, A.; Khaleghi, M.; Danaei, M.; Mozafari, M.R. Selective cytotoxicity of green synthesized silver nanoparticles against the MCF-7 tumor cell line and their enhanced antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Int. J. Nanomed. 2018, 13, 8013–8024.
  35. Bapat, R.A.; Chaubal, T.V.; Joshi, C.P.; Bapat, P.R.; Choudhury, H.; Pandey, M.; Gorain, B.; Kesharwani, P. An overview of application of silver nanoparticles for biomaterials in dentistry. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 2018, 91, 881–898.
  36. Ramkumar, V.S.; Pugazhendhi, A.; Gopalakrishnan, K.; Sivagurunathan, P.; Saratale, G.D.; Dung, T.N.B.; Kannapiran, E. Biofabrication and characterization of silver nanoparticles using aqueous extract of seaweed Enteromorpha compressa and its biomedical properties. Biotechnol. Rep. 2017, 14, 1–7.
  37. Hackenberg, S.; Scherzed, A.; Kessler, M.; Hummel, S.; Technau, A.; Froelich, K.; Ginzkey, C.; Koehler, C.; Hagen, R.; Kleinsasser, N. Silver nanoparticles: Evaluation of DNA damage, toxicity and functional impairment in human mesenchymal stem cells. Toxicol. Lett. 2011, 201, 27–33.
  38. Quinzii, C.M.; Lopez, L.C.; Gilkerson, R.W.; Dorado, B.; Coku, J.; Naini, A.B.; Lagier-Tourenne, C.; Schuelke, M.; Salviati, L.; Carrozzo, R.; et al. Reactive oxygen species, oxidative stress, and cell death correlate with level of CoQ10 deficiency. FASEB J. 2010, 24, 3733–3743.
  39. Durán, N.; Nakazato, G.; Seabra, A.B. Antimicrobial activity of biogenic silver nanoparticles, and silver chloride nanoparticles: An overview and comments. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2016, 100, 6555–6570.
  40. Liao, C.; Li, Y.; Tjong, S.C. Bactericidal and Cytotoxic Properties of Silver Nanoparticles. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2019, 20, 449.
  41. Li, L.; Li, L.; Zhou, X.; Yu, Y.; Li, Z.; Zuo, D.; Wu, Y. Silver nanoparticles induce protective autophagy via Ca2+/CaMKKβ/AMPK/mTOR pathway in SH-SY5Y cells and rat brains. Nanotoxicology 2019, 13, 369–391.
  42. García-Contreras, R.; Argueta-Figueroa, L.; Mejía-Rubalcava, C.; Jiménez-Martínez, R.; Cuevas-Guajardo, S.; Sánchez-Reyna, P.A.; Zeron, H.M. Perspectives for the use of silver nanoparticles in dental practice. Int. Dent. J. 2011, 61, 297–301.
  43. E Silva, A.V.C.; Teixeira, J.A.; Mota, C.C.; Lins, E.C.C.C.; Correia de Melo Júnior, P.; de Souza Lima, M.G.; Arnaud, M.; Galembeck, A.; Gadelha, A.T.; Pereira, J.R.D.; et al. In Vitro morphological, optical and microbiological evaluation of nanosilver fluoride in the remineralization of deciduous teeth enamel. Nanotechnol. Rev. 2018, 7, 509–520.
  44. Dos Santos, V., Jr.; Vasconcelos Filho, A.; Targino, A.; Flores, M.; Galembeck, A.; Caldas, A.F., Jr.; Rosenblatt, A. A new “silver-bullet” to treat caries in children–nano silver fluoride: A randomised clinical trial. J. Dent. 2014, 42, 945–951.
  45. Puppala, N.; Nagireddy, V.R.; Reddy, D.; Kondamadugu, S.; Mareddy, A.; Chris, A. Nanosilver Fluoride—A Paradigm Shift for Arrest in Dental Caries in Primary Teeth of Schoolchildren: A Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial. Int. J. Clin. Pediatr. Dent. 2019, 12, 484–490.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Dentistry, Oral Surgery & Medicine
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Ahmed Zaeneldin
,
Chun-Hung Chu
,
Ollie Yiru Yu
View Times: 827
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 12 May 2023
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    ScholarVision Creations
    Feedback