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By-Products for the Agri-Food Industry
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/antiox12040976

In Europe, around 31 million tonnes of food by-products are generated during primary production and trade. The management of these by-products may cause a negative impact, both at the economic and environmental levels, for both industry and society. In this regard, taking into consideration that these by-products retain the dietary fibre compositions and the bioactive compounds of the starting materials, plant food agro-industries have an interest in taking advantage of them, from a nutritional point of view. Using different extraction techniques they can be used as the source of insoluble and soluble dietary fibre, polyphenols, carotenoids, and other bioactive compounds.

by-product dietary fibre antioxidant valorisation

1. Introduction

Fruits and vegetables play an important role in the diet. Recognition of this, coupled with increasing health concerns and global population growth, has led to an increase in the production of fruits and vegetables [1]. Consequently, the generation of by-products has increased. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimated in 2011 that at least one-third of food production is lost or wasted throughout the food supply chain (around 1.3 billion tonnes per year). The highest values were observed for horticultural products, reaching up to 60% [2]. Both food loss and waste cause economic and environmental problems for the food industries because of the large amounts of wasted resources [3]. Therefore, it is necessary to implement research and development actions in order to valorise these materials.
By-products generated within this sector include pulp, peel, seeds, skin, pomace, husks, pods, and stems, all of which contain significant amounts of dietary fibre and bioactive compounds ((poly)phenols, carotenoids, glucosinolates, etc.) in their raw materials [4]. For this reason, the valorisation of by-products can be attractive for the food industry, in order to obtain ingredients of nutritional interest [5].
This, together with the growing concern of policymakers to promote the transformation of the food system through a sustainable production model and the adoption of more sustainable lifestyles by consumers, has led researchers to search for new applications for these by-products. The studies have focused on the implementation of circular economy models in which by-products are reintroduced into production chains as new products [6]. Several studies have been carried out to obtain dietary fibres from these by-products, while others have focused on the extraction of bioactive compounds [7][8], mainly (poly)phenol compounds.

2. Importance of By-Products for the Agri-Food Industry

2.1. Generation of By-Products and Their Implications

According to Directive 2018/851 of the European Union (EU), a by-product is a substance or object resulting from a production process whose primary purpose is not the production of that substance or object, and which is not considered as waste, for which different conditions must be fulfilled (Table 1) [9].
Table 1. Main concepts and definitions regarding by-product generation.
Table
Concept Definition Reference
By-product A substance or object resulting from a production process whose primary purpose is not the production of that substance or object, and which is not considered as waste, for which different conditions must be fulfilled [9]
Field by-products Plant materials that remain after harvesting [10]
Process by-products Plant materials discarded during processing because quality standards are not met [10]
Industrial by-products By-products generated from different industrial transformation processes of different physical and chemical materials [10]
Food losses Losses that take place at production, postharvest, and processing stages in the food supply chain [2]
Food waste Losses that take place at the retail and consumption stages at the end of the food supply chain [2]
Circular economy An economic model wherein planning, resourcing, procurement, production, and reprocessing are designed and managed, as both process and output, to maximise ecosystem functioning and human well-being [11]
Bioeconomy Encompasses the sustainable production of renewable resources from land, fisheries, and aquaculture environments and their conversion into food, feed, fibre, ingredients, bio-based products, and bioenergy, as well as related public goods [12]
Related to the activity of the plant food industries, several by-products are generated which could be considered as raw materials for other industrial processes. The most practical classification is made in terms of the moment at which they are generated within the agri-food chain (Figure 1) [10][13]. In this respect, field by-products are those that remain after harvesting, including leaves, stems, roots, and seeds—and even some of the edible parts of plants—that are considered surplus and are not harvested. Subsequently, plant foods are subjected to sorting, grading, and/or cleaning processes, according to specific quality criteria, leading to the generation of process by-products, including husks, straw, leaves, stubble, and shells, among others, which are separated during processing. Whole fruits and vegetables removed because they do not meet quality standards are usually produced as field or process by-products, depending on whether they are discarded prior to processing or during processing (Figure 1). Finally, industrial by-products are those generated from different industrial transformation processes that are by-products of varying physical and chemical materials, including peels, pulp, pomaces, and cakes, among others (Figure 1 and Table 1).
Antioxidants 12 00976 g001
Figure 1. General diagram of by-product generation and management along the food chain.
In general, food by-products can be classified as food losses when they are generated at the production, postharvest, and processing stages in the food supply chain. When food losses occur at the end of the food chain (retail and consumption), they are classified as food waste [2] (Table 1). Worldwide, 75% of total food by-products are the result of food loss occurring during production and postharvest, and the total per capita value for both food loss and waste is estimated at 1532 kg/year [2]. The greatest losses around the world for fruits and vegetables occurred in the preharvest and distribution steps, according to the 2016–2017 food loss and waste database, which highlights the importance of taking advantage of the by-products generated at these stages [14]. In the EU, 88 million tonnes of food are wasted every year, equal to a cost of EUR 143 billion, of which 35% are lost between primary production and trade [15]. In plant food industrial processing, the main by-products produced are peels (3–40% of the total fruit and vegetable fresh weight), seeds (15–40% of the total fruit fresh weight), pomaces, and cores, among others [16].
Regarding environmental problems, global food loss and waste are estimated to generate a total carbon footprint of 3.6 gigatonnes of CO2 eq. Due to the problems that by-products are generating and will continue to generate in the coming years, valorisation of by-products is included in the Sustainable Development Goal 12 “responsible consumption and production”, since this goal could be achieved by reducing food loss and waste, decreasing the impact on climate change [17]. Moreover, in most cases, by-products are made up of large amounts of biodegradable compounds that can be used by bacteria and, consequently, are susceptible to content pathogens that may cause communicable diseases [18].
From an economic perspective, a reduction in food loss and waste and the valorisation due to their reintroduction into the food chain may lead to a significant reduction in by-product management costs. At the same time, industries may profit from the products that have been obtained from these by-products [18]. In other words, increased profitability along the food chain is achieved through the efficient use of materials. This consists of using materials that would otherwise have been discarded and doing so in an efficient way (e.g., reusing by-products as raw materials, recovering solvents, and reusing water in different processes). In this way, the costs of purchasing new raw materials are saved and the valorisation of a by-product is gained. In addition, through an industrial process, value has been added to the by-product by taking advantage of its properties [19].
In this regard, two new concepts have been introduced in recent decades: the circular economy and the bioeconomy. These are interlinked and give rise to a new concept, “the circular bioeconomy”, which is focused on the sustainable production of renewable resources (Table 1) [12].

2.2. Composition of Agro-Industrial By-Products

A strategy for the utilisation of by-products from the agri-food industry should take into consideration their composition. In this regard, these by-products can be a good source of proteins, dietary fibre (DF), starch, micronutrients [20], as well as lipids. Seeds are the by-products with the highest contents of fat. For example, fat constitutes more than 20% of pepper and melon seeds [21][22]. However, the content of DF stands out in some plant by-products, as described in the scientific literature for some by-products; this is shown in Table 2. The contents of total dietary fibre (TDF) in apple, redcurrant, rowanberry, and tomato pomace are 51.1%, 58.1%, 67.2%, and 64.1%, respectively (Table 2) [23][24]; whereas in citrus, mango, plantain, and tomato peels, the mean contents of TDF are 67.4%, 69.9%, 64.3%, and 86.2% (Table 2), respectively [25][26][27], while in broccoli stalks it is around 38%. On the other hand, the content of TDF in seeds is lower compared with pomace and peels, ranging from 2.9 to 26.3%, while in undifferentiated by-products it is between 35 and 90% (Table 2).
Table 2. Dietary fibre (%) and bioactive compounds of fruit and vegetable by-products.
Table
Fruit/Vegetable TDF * IDF SDF (Poly)phenols Carotenoids Glucosinolates Reference
Pomace              
Apple 51.1 36.5 14.6 10.2 mg GAE/g - - [28]
Redcurrant 58.1 51.1 7.1 20.0 mAU min/g - - [28]
Rowanberry 67.2 59.5 7.7 37.0 mAU min/g - - [28]
Tomato 64.1 58.5 5.6 55.1 mg GAE/g - - [28]
Mango 15 7 8 130 mg GAE/g - - [29]
Peel              
Citrus 67.4 62.5 4.9 1.0 mg GAE/g - - [28]
Mango 69.9 44.2 24.6 0.1 mg GAE/g 5.6 µg β-carotene/g - [28]
Plantain 64.3 56.9 7.5 15.2 mg QE/g - - [28]
Tomato 86.2 71.8 14.3 1.6 mg GAE/g 30–40 µg lycopene/g - [25]
Seed              
Avocado 3–26 - - 3–5 mg GAE/g - - [28]
Grapes 8.2 - - 5 mg/g - - [28]
Papaya 8–9 2.5–3.4 5.2–5.4 34–92 mg GAE/g - - [28]
Stalk              
Broccoli 38.2 35 3.2 1.6 mg GAE/g - 0.7 mg/g [30]
Others              
Orange 58.2 46.9 11.3 4.2 mg GAE/g 57.7 µg carotenoids/g - [31]
Guava 89.8 86.1 3.7 2.5 mg GAE/g 12.7 µg carotenoids/g - [31]
Passion fruit 64.2 44.8 19.4 3.8 mg GAE/g 84.6 µg carotenoids/g - [31]
Acerola 48.6 34.4 14.2 19 mg/g - - [32]
Cashew 35 27 8 8 mg/g - - [32]
Insoluble dietary fibre (IDF) has been described as the major component of TDF in these by-products, being represented by cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin [28]. The amounts of soluble dietary fibre (SDF) range from 3 to 25%, represented mainly by pectin contents, with a high percentage of TDF in mango peel and passion fruit by-products [28]. In addition, plant food by-products are rich in antioxidant bioactive compounds ((poly)phenols, carotenoids, and glucosinolates), demonstrating different compositions according to the raw materials (Table 2). Other authors have reported that grape, tomato pomace, and red corn cob contain significant concentrations of gallic acid, rutin, epicatechin, and apigenin [25][33]. Relevant contents of carotenoids have also been reported in orange, mango, carrot, and tomato by-products [25][34], while glucosinolates have been reported in broccoli stalks [30].

2.3. Industrial Applications

In the agro-industrial sector, about 50% of the mass of fruit and vegetable products are discarded during the course of the industrial process [35]. Traditionally, landfilling or incineration has been used for by-product disposal, but these practices lead to the problem of environmental pollution (air, water, and soil). Although they are now in disuse, these practices are still actively used in some countries [18]. As an alternative, these by-products have been also used as fertilisers in agronomical practices and/or as animal feed, since they still maintain the chemical compositions of the raw materials and provide various amounts of protein, cellulose, and hemicellulose [19]. However, the utilisation of by-products in animal nutrition poses certain problems, such as the presence of toxic or chemical compounds which could be dangerous for the livestock, affecting performance and food production [36].
Despite the application of plant foods, by-products have been used for many years. Nowadays, new trends in by-product utilisation have focused on the recovery and reuse of valuable components. This aspect has attracted increased interest from companies, mainly due to the application of circular economy and bioeconomy approaches. In this regard, by-products can be used to obtain compost, biofuel, bio-adsorbent materials, bio-polymers, and new materials for textiles [37].
Other recent applications are the extraction of different bioactive compounds for the food industry and nutraceutical and pharmacological applications [18], since by-products from fruits and vegetables are rich in phytochemicals, which are considered natural active substances with significant health-promoting effects [38]. Once extracted, the phytochemicals or the bioactive compounds can be used as nutraceuticals, as in the case of extracts from berry pomace [39]. In addition, other by-products have shown pharmacological properties, as in the case of orange peel components, which showed potential use in the prevention of membrane oxidative stress [40], and berry pomace, with potential use in antimicrobial therapies [41]. Orange juice by-products have shown neuroprotective properties [42], and flavonoids from citrus peel have shown potential for cancer prevention [43].
Furthermore, new uses have also been reported within the cosmetics industry. In this regard, grape by-products could be used to treat skin wrinkling and pigmentation disorders [44]. Other in vitro and in vivo studies have linked (poly)phenols to the prevention of skin damage, rosacea, and psoriasis, among other disorders [45]. Compounds such as β-carotene and lycopene (from tomato peels) have been used in the development of sunscreen formulations [45].
Nowadays, due to the chemical properties and compounds present in fruit and vegetable by-products, the reintroduction of these by-products into the food chain is one of the most important paths to recovery, as they can be reused in the food chain following the circular economy model. For example, carotenoids and (poly)phenols obtained from plant by-products have been used as natural food colorants and preservatives [46]. Moreover, betalains have been used as natural colorants [47]. The natural colorants extracted from industrial by-products can be considered new ingredients and allow the development of innovative foods with natural or sometimes fortified ingredients, with artificial colorants being replaced by ones with higher nutritional values and which are often cheaper [48]. Another important use of plant food by-products is the extraction of TDF, IDF, and SDF, which can be used as ingredients for the design and development of fibre-rich products, which are important for maintaining digestive health and preventing chronic diseases. [49]. Fibre, such as that from fruits, vegetables, and grains, can also act as a natural thickener, emulsifier, and stabiliser in food products [50]. In view of this, several food fortification studies have been carried out with fibre-rich ingredients. In these studies, for example, fruit and vegetable fibre powders were added to bakery products, such as bread and cakes, to increase their fibre content and improve their texture. More specifically, apple pomace and cactus powder were added to improve the technological properties of cakes, and mango skin powder was added to soft biscuits. In meat products, such as sausages and burgers, fibre by-products can be used as binders to improve the texture and reduce the fat content, as in the case of grape fibre, which has been used in the manufacture of chicken patties and minced fish muscle [51]. Moreover, oat fibre and psyllium husks are used in breakfast cereals and snacks to increase their fibre content, promote satiety, and prevent cholesterol accumulation; in dairy products, such as yogurt and ice cream, they can be used to improve the creaminess and prevent the formation of ice crystals, and in sauces and dressings they can be used as thickeners and stabilisers to improve texture and prevent separation. Finally, other recent applications are being developed to improve the technological and nutritional properties of vegan or gluten-free recipes, as in the case of chia fibres that are used as egg substitutes, acting as binding agents. Therefore, the use of vegetable fibre by-products in the food industry offers a range of benefits, both in terms of improving the nutritional value of food products and enhancing their functionality [52][53][54][55].

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Vanesa Núñez-Gómez
,
Rocío González-Barrio
,
María Jesús Periago
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Update Date: 06 May 2023
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