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Kipkoech, C. Edible Insects as a Source of Dietary Fiber. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/43677 (accessed on 18 September 2024).
Kipkoech C. Edible Insects as a Source of Dietary Fiber. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/43677. Accessed September 18, 2024.
Kipkoech, Carolyne. "Edible Insects as a Source of Dietary Fiber" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/43677 (accessed September 18, 2024).
Kipkoech, C. (2023, May 02). Edible Insects as a Source of Dietary Fiber. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/43677
Kipkoech, Carolyne. "Edible Insects as a Source of Dietary Fiber." Encyclopedia. Web. 02 May, 2023.
Edible Insects as a Source of Dietary Fiber
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/polysaccharides4020009

The consumption of insects as an alternative protein source is acceptable as a sustainable alternative to mainstream protein sources. Apart from containing a high protein content, insects also have dietary fiber in the form of chitin, which helps to enrich gut microbiota. The importance of the gut microbiome in general health has recently been underlined for humans, farm animals, pets, poultry, and fish. The advances in 16S RNA techniques have enabled the examination of complex microbial communities in the gastrointestinal tract, shedding more light on the role of diet in disease and immunity. The gut microbiome generates signals influencing the normal nutritional status, immune functions, metabolism, disease, and well-being. The gut microbiome depends on dietary fiber; hence, their diversity is modulated by diet, a relevant factor in defining the composition of gut microbiota. Small shifts in diet have demonstrated an enormous shift in gut microbiota. Edible insects are an excellent source of protein, fat, and chitin that could influence the gut microbiota as a prebiotic. Chitin from insects, when consumed, contributes to a healthy gut microbiome by increasing diversity in fecal microbiota. Moreover, a high fiber intake has been associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer, diverticular disease, coronary heart disease, and metabolic syndrome.

chitin chitosan gut health microbiota

1. Introduction

More than 2 billion people around the world are already consuming insects, directly or indirectly, making them an important part of diets. Most insects contain the essential nutrients required by humans and animals, which include fats, proteins, fiber, vitamins, and, in addition, minerals [1]. The nutrient composition of many edible insects is comparable to that of other traditionally consumed animal protein sources. Therefore, they may act as an alternative source to other mainstream animal protein sources such as chicken, beef, and fish. Relative to livestock, insects are a more sustainable and efficient food source, requiring minimum water and space [2]. The consumption of insects for food is a traditional practice in many societies, especially in Asia, Latin America, and Africa, and is common in low-income groups in these countries, often collected from the wild. By contrast, in most Western countries, people view entomophagy with disgust or even as culturally inappropriate; therefore, consumption is infrequent [3]. However, with greater awareness of the environmental footprint associated with the livestock industry and concerns around the sustainability of agriculture and the impacts of climate change on productive systems, there is an opportunity for using insects as an additional and healthy protein source. Currently, the use of insects as protein sources within the European Union has a legal basis [4], which has allowed many startup companies to engage in insect farming for pigs, poultry, and fish. Already, yellow mealworm is extensively farmed, and other insects such as crickets and grasshoppers may be farmed for human consumption. There is a possibility of increased consumption of insects, especially due to their potential to provide other uses beyond their nutritional benefits. The isolation of specific compounds that can be used as food supplements, the dietary fiber contained in insects, and their use as high-protein supplements in sports will likely increase the usage of edible insects [5][6].

2. Edible Insects

Most countries are currently embracing insect farming for pet food, poultry, pigs, and fish. The inclusion of edible insects in food production has the potential to benefit the environment and animal and human health by supplementing other animal-sourced proteins. This would help save resources such as land and water; reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and eventually address issues of food security [7]. Concerning nutrient composition, edible insects have a sufficient number of essential amino acids, fatty acids, fiber, vitamins, and minerals [8]. This is a suitable alternative to livestock, fish, and poultry and can replace fishmeal in animal feed as a more suitable and efficient protein source, often reared on organic waste [9].
The increased interest in agricultural resources and the decreasing ecological impact of food production have shown the consumption of insects rising at a global rate, and their farming for feed may offer a sustainable means of food production [10]. To satisfy the demand for sufficient insect quantities, farming insects is gaining fast momentum across the globe. Edible insects not only provide common nutrients but also bioactive substances such as chitin and antimicrobial peptides [6]. The nutritional profile of insects can be highly variable and depends on the insect species, the feed used, and the developmental stage [11]. Environmental factors can also affect their nutritional value, and this may include the day length, light intensity, temperature, and humidity [11]. Insects’ protein content varies between 12 and 70%, they may be highly digestible, and their consumption may contribute to the total protein intake, enhancing nutritional quality in the human diet. Edible insects meet the daily energy and nutrient requirements, from their fat, amino acid, and mineral composition. The high amino acid content in insects and the presence of omega fatty acids allow them to act as dietary supplements that help alleviate disease [12]. Therefore, using edible insects may confer positive health implications.
The total fat content of insects ranges between 6 and 43% and is generally similar to that of animal fats and vegetable oil [12]. However, in comparison with beef and pork, insects are particularly rich in mono and polyunsaturated fatty acids. The high content of unsaturated fatty acids may be problematic due to oxidation during the handling and processing of insect products, and this may lead to a food safety risk. Processed food with high protein and fat contents is prone to spoilage due to oxidation [13]; hence, food products processed with whole insects as ingredients may fall into this category. If this is the case, defatting may be a solution to the high fat content and the obtained fat, used on its own or in combination with other products. Some insects contain phenols and flavonoids, which have antioxidative properties. Substantial levels of these compounds are seen in silkworm larvae, crickets, and grasshoppers [14].

3. Chitin and Chitosan as a Dietary Fiber

Dietary fibers are carbohydrates not digested in the body and can travel through the digestive system, helping the system to stay healthy [15]. The soluble dietary fiber can dissolve sugar and cholesterol, while the insoluble ones help in bulking and therefore facilitate better bowel movement [15]. Chitin is an abundant natural polymer with a structure almost similar to that of cellulose, while chitosan is the deacetylated form of chitin and is soluble in slightly acidic conditions [16]. Chitin is the main component of crustacean shells, insects’ exoskeletons, and the cell wall of fungi. The major source of chitin in the world is crustaceans’ shells, which usually accumulate as large waste and are a major concern of this industry [17]. The chitin content from crustaceans is enormous but is extracted before use, often using aggressive chemicals, while chitin from insects and some fungi is converted directly to chitosan (Figure 1).
Polysaccharides 04 00009 g001 550
Figure 1. Process of obtaining chitosan from various sources.
Crustacean and insects chitin are cross-linked with proteins, while fungal chitin is associated with other polysaccharides such as glucans that are often in higher quantities than the chitin [18]. During extraction, the mycelial or fruiting bodies are used for fungal chitin extraction, the shells for crustaceans, and the pupae or whole insects for the extraction of chitin from edible insects [18]. Marine sources have the greatest potential for chitin yield, but sources are seasonal and limited due to climate change; moreover, the shells are also often exposed to infections and contaminations, which may affect the quality of chitin obtained [19]. Fungi is the second-largest source of chitin that has a commercial advantage as a vegan source of chitin and chitosan. Some fungal species can be a source of chitosan directly without having to undergo deacetylation [20]. The widely studied species for direct chitosan production are Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes, and Basidiomycetes, although this has not been conducted on an industrial scale [20]. Insects are usually promoted due to their high protein and fat contents, and the addition of fiber is likely to increase the benefits of this novel food. Figure 1 outlines the major source of chitin; edible insect chitin can be consumed and deacetylated by the host enzymes. Edible insects contain varied amounts of chitin depending on the developmental stage [21]. The older the insect, the higher the chitin content. This has partly contributed to the increased interest in chitin and chitosan from farmed edible insects. More chitin and chitosan from exuviate can be obtained after the emergence of the adult from the pupae shell. This can provide additional chitin extraction material from the rearing of the black soldier fly, and this contributes to a circular economy [22].
Insects, when consumed whole, contain chitin that will act as dietary fiber both in humans and in animals. Industries in the domain of beneficial insect breeding are witnessing rapid growth, and the market estimation of edible insects for food and feed is estimated to increase, with the current estimation being that more than EUR 1 billion has been invested in the insect sector [23]. The importance of chitin and chitosan as food relates to their outcome as a dietary fiber and hence a functional ingredient, since chitosan is a novel food ingredient [24]. Chitosan is used as a food quality enhancer, and products containing chitosan are sold in Japan for their cholesterol-lowering ability [25]. Apart from its use in humans, chitin and chitosan have also been used in soil to improve plant health [26], to help improve growth in chicken [27], to improve immunity in fish [28], and to relieve pathogenic bacteria-induced retardant growth in pigs [29]. 
Chitin is a viscous dietary fiber that binds cholesterol, hence decreasing its absorption and leading to the excretion of excess cholesterol [16]. Chitin is non-digestible in the upper gastrointestinal tract, with high viscosity and high water binding capacity, while at the lower part of the gastrointestinal tract, it has low water holding capacity that helps in the effective reduction of cholesterol by the dietary fiber. The lower part of the gastrointestinal tract contains microorganisms that secrete chitinase, which can digest chitin, releasing bile acids and sterols that are excreted without absorption [16]. The production of short-chain fatty acid after the consumption of chitin has not been demonstrated in humans but has been demonstrated in poultry [30]. This study reported that a diet consisting of black soldier fly larvae affected the production of large intestinal microbiota and short-chain fatty acids in poultry [30]. This may have been due to the prebiotic potential of chitin that promotes the gut health and, subsequently, the overall health of the poultry. Additionally, the increase in butyric acid and short-chain fatty acids optimizes intestinal health and inhibits pathogenic bacteria [31].
The human gastrointestinal tract is home to a host of bacterial cells that are slightly higher in number than human cells [32]. The ideal number of bacteria in the gut has not been determined due to the huge diversity caused by genetic variability, the difference in diet, and health [33]. Research has demonstrated that microbiota in the human gut respond to nutritional changes [34][35][36]. When this happens, the microbiota generates signals that influence the normal nutritional status, metabolism, immune function, and disease progression, which greatly contribute to overall well-being [37][38][39]. In addition, there is a general agreement that healthy microbiota are associated with better health [40][41]. People suffering from obesity have a lower diversity of gut microbiota commonly known as dysbiosis [42]. Low microbial diversity is associated with chronic non-communicable diseases [43][44]. The diet is the most relevant factor in defining the composition of gut microbiota [45]; indigestible fiber is the primary energy source and can be fermented by the microbiota and hence acts as a prebiotic. A healthy diet leads to a more diverse and healthy microbiome [46][47]. The ability to maintain healthy microbiota is useful in activating the host’s immune system and other mechanisms that may constitute a new therapeutic strategy for preventing chronic disease.
Dysbiosis is a microbial imbalance in the body, leading to impaired microbiota, which is a commonly reported condition in the gastrointestinal tract, caused by small intestinal bacterial or fungal overgrowth. Normal microbial colonies are beneficial and help aid the digestion and synthesis of vitamins such as B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12, and vitamin K [48], which are involved in myriad aspects of the microbial and host metabolism. When there is a microbial imbalance, the microbes exhibit a decreased ability to check each other’s growth; this can cause the overgrowth of one of the disturbed microbes, which may damage beneficial ones in a vicious cycle [49]. Usually, microbial colonies excrete different types of waste that the body effectively manages, but oversized microbes excreta can cause negative outcomes. These may include pathogenic members taking hold of the gut environment [49]. Imbalances in the gut microbiota are associated with metabolic and non-communicable diseases, gastrointestinal conditions, allergies, asthma, and environmental enteric dysfunction (EED) [42]. Relationships between the diet, nutritional status, immune system, and microbial ecology are important as we look for new ways to feed healthy foods to a human population predicted to expand to 10 billion by 2050.
Gut health is determined by gut microbiota commonly called probiotics. Probiotics are living organisms that benefit the host when available in adequate amounts, though even dead bacteria and their products confer probiotics benefits [50]. Prebiotics are substances that can maintain normal gut microbiota when there is an imbalance; therefore, probiotics and prebiotics are dependent on each other. The most popular probiotics are the lactic acid bacteria that help in the fermentation of non-digestible polysaccharides [50].

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