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Albatayneh, A.; Juaidi, A.; Jaradat, M.; Manzano-Agugliaro, F. Electric and Hydrogen Automobile. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/43399 (accessed on 04 September 2024).
Albatayneh A, Juaidi A, Jaradat M, Manzano-Agugliaro F. Electric and Hydrogen Automobile. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/43399. Accessed September 04, 2024.
Albatayneh, Aiman, Adel Juaidi, Mustafa Jaradat, Francisco Manzano-Agugliaro. "Electric and Hydrogen Automobile" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/43399 (accessed September 04, 2024).
Albatayneh, A., Juaidi, A., Jaradat, M., & Manzano-Agugliaro, F. (2023, April 24). Electric and Hydrogen Automobile. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/43399
Albatayneh, Aiman, et al. "Electric and Hydrogen Automobile." Encyclopedia. Web. 24 April, 2023.
Electric and Hydrogen Automobile
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/en16073230

The negative consequences of toxic emissions from internal combustion engines, energy security, climate change, and energy costs have led to a growing demand for clean power sources in the automotive industry. Developing eco-friendly vehicle technologies, such as electric and hydrogen vehicles, has increased. The researchers investigate whether hydrogen vehicles will replace electric vehicles in the future. The results showed that fuel-cell cars are unlikely to compete with electric cars. This is due to the advancements in electric vehicles and charging infrastructure, which are becoming more cost-effective and efficient. Additionally, the technical progress in Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) is expected to reduce the market share of Fuel-Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) in passenger vehicles. However, there are significant investments in hydrogen cars. Many ongoing investments seem to follow the sunk cost fallacy, where decision-makers continue to invest in an unprofitable project due to the already invested resources. Furthermore, even with megawatt charging, fuel-cell trucks cost more than battery-powered electric trucks. The use cases for fuel-cell electric trucks are also much more limited, as their running expenses are higher compared to electric cars. Hydrogen vehicles may be beneficial for heavy transport in remote areas. However, it remains to be seen if niche markets are large enough to support fuel-cell electric truck commercialization and economies of scale. In summary, researchers believe hydrogen vehicles will not replace electric cars and trucks, at least before 2050.

hydrogen cars and trucks electric cars and trucks future transportation

1. Electric vs. Hydrogen Automobile

The future of electric and hydrogen cars and trucks is likely influenced by several factors, including technological advancements, cost considerations, and government policies and regulations. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are powered by electricity stored in a battery and are becoming increasingly popular due to their high efficiency, low emissions, and relatively low operating costs. Advancements in battery technology, such as increased energy density and faster charging times, will likely make BEVs more practical and attractive to consumers. Fuel-cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) are powered by hydrogen and produce only water as a byproduct, making them a clean and efficient alternative to traditional gasoline-powered vehicles. The future of FCEVs will depend on advancements in hydrogen production and distribution technology and the cost of hydrogen fuel. As the technology becomes more mature and hydrogen production and distribution become more efficient, the cost of FCEVs will likely decrease, making them more affordable and practical for consumers.
Regarding government policies and regulations, both BEVs and FCEVs are likely to benefit from policies aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting the use of clean vehicles. Governments may offer incentives, such as tax credits or subsidies, to encourage the purchase of clean vehicles, which can help to drive the market for electric and hydrogen vehicles.
The automotive industry has not reached a consensus on the best approach to reducing vehicle emissions. While many car manufacturers are focusing on battery electric vehicles, a few, such as Toyota, Hyundai, and General Motors, are still pursuing hydrogen fuel cell technology, which can offer zero-emission driving but is less efficient than battery electric vehicles. The public’s response to fuel-cell electric vehicles has been lackluster, largely due to the lack of infrastructure and overall lower efficiency than electric cars. Charging electric cars overnight at the driver’s home is possible, but this is not the case for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. A recent study [1] has cast doubt on the feasibility of fuel-cell electric cars on the market for commercial trucks, even if they still have a chance.
The charging infrastructure for BEVs is rapidly expanding, with many cities investing in public charging networks. However, the production of BEV batteries still requires significant amounts of energy, much of which comes from fossil fuels. Additionally, there are concerns about the limited availability of certain metals in producing BEV batteries [2][3]. As for the future of these two technologies, the increasing demand for clean transportation and the rapid development of charging infrastructure indicate that BEVs will likely play a significant role in the future of personal transportation. However, hydrogen FCVs may also have a place in specific niche markets, such as long-haul trucking, where their more extended driving range and faster refueling times may be advantageous [4].

2. Comparison between Fuel-Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) and Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs)

The car industry has disputed FCEVs vs. BEVs. Toyota, Hyundai, and GM have made FCEVs practicable. Most automakers prefer BEVs. Zero-emission FCEVs are less efficient than BEVs. Infrastructure hinders FCEV adoption. FCEVs, unlike BEVs, require fuelling stations. BEVs are more energy-efficient than FCEVs. FCs are being developed for hydrogen-powered EVs [5]. This makes sustainable transportation simpler. A BEV’s onboard battery pack powers several battery cell configurations. BEVs are cheaper and greener, but their lithium-ion batteries only hold 1% of the energy in gasoline or diesel [6]. Battery electric powertrains are likely in smaller, lighter cars. Battery power limits vehicle range [7][8]. The cost of electric vehicles (EVs) is influenced by factors such as battery technology, power pricing, government incentives, and regulations. The advancements in battery technology can reduce the cost of EVs, and improved battery efficiency can further decrease their prices. Energy prices also affect the cost of operating EVs; if electricity prices decrease, EVs become cheaper to run, but if power prices increase, the expenses also increase. Government subsidies and regulations can impact EV prices, and tax credits and other incentives may reduce operating costs. However, the implementation of cleaner electricity rules may increase EV running expenses. The cost of EVs will continue to decrease as technology evolves and becomes widely adopted. In addition, research suggests that the cost of producing green hydrogen may decrease by up to 85 percent by 2050, making it more competitive with fossil fuels [9]. According to a second study by the Hydrogen Council, the cost of hydrogen fuel cell systems might drop by 50 percent by 2030, bringing the price of hydrogen vehicles in line with battery electric vehicles (BEVs) [10]. However, it should be highlighted that there are still obstacles to overcome in terms of the cost of producing and storing hydrogen, as well as the development of the infrastructure required to sustain a hydrogen economy [11]. In contrast, battery prices have decreased considerably in recent years, and this trend is anticipated to continue. According to research by Bloomberg New Energy Finance, the cost of lithium-ion batteries might decrease by an additional 52 percent by 2030, while their energy density could grow by 42 percent [12].
It is important to note that the relative prices of hydrogen and batteries may vary based on the particular application and local conditions. Hydrogen may be more cost-effective for heavy-duty and long-distance transportation, whilst batteries may be better suited for short-range and urban applications [13]. BEVs and FCEVs are two forms of zero-emission cars that potentially considerably reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector. FCEVs utilize hydrogen fuel and a fuel cell to create energy for the electric motor, whereas BEVs use rechargeable lithium-ion batteries to store electricity and power an electric motor. The comparison of costs between the two types of cars is contingent upon a number of variables, including the price of batteries, hydrogen, and the availability of charging or refueling infrastructure [14].
Due to the high cost of fuel cell technology and the restricted availability of hydrogen filling facilities, BEVs are typically less costly than FCEVs. As manufacturing quantities rise and technology improves, however, the cost of fuel cell technology is likely to fall over time. In addition, it is anticipated that the cost of hydrogen will fall as production grows and as additional renewable sources of hydrogen become accessible. One research estimates that by 2030, the price of hydrogen might fall to between USD 1.40 and USD 2.60 per kilogram, making it more competitive with gasoline per mile. On the other hand, technical developments and economies of scale in production are anticipated to reduce the price of batteries over time. Nonetheless, the restricted range and recharging time of BEVs remain significant impediments to their widespread adoption.
FCEVs, on the other hand, have a longer range and can be refueled more rapidly, making them more suited for long-distance travel [15]. BEVs and FCEVs have the potential to considerably cut greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector. Nevertheless, their cost competitiveness is contingent on a number of factors, including the price of batteries and hydrogen, as well as the availability of charging and refueling infrastructure. Refueling a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle still takes longer than refueling a conventional gasoline vehicle, typically around 5 to 10 min. The advantage over a battery electric vehicle is the longer driving range between refueling stops. Additionally, the statement explains that hydrogen fuel cells offer higher energy density than battery packs, but this advantage comes with added costs and technical challenges. The use of fuel cell technology in electric vehicles has the potential to overcome issues such as range anxiety, as these vehicles have longer ranges and quicker charging times compared to battery electric vehicles. This advantage could potentially outweigh the disadvantages of producing, storing, and distributing hydrogen fuel. However, it is important to note that there are still challenges to be addressed in the widespread adoption of fuel cell technology, including the high cost of production and the need for an extensive refueling infrastructure [16][17]. In addition, financial benefits are associated with using FCEVs because it is estimated that the cost of charging or discharging a lithium-ion battery is approximately USD 130/kW in terms of power output. This presents an opportunity for consumers to save money [18][19][20][21][22][23].
On the other hand, the cost of hydrogen storage tanks in compressed form and fuel cell stacks are estimated at approximately USD 15 per kilowatt-hour and USD 53 per kilowatt, respectively. In addition, it is anticipated that the price of hydrogen will be decreased to USD 8 per kilogram, which is comparable to USD 0.24 per kilowatt-hour [24]. Even though the technology and the prices of refueling are competitive with those of BEVs, the cost of acquiring FCEVs is typically still expensive, and the infrastructure for refueling is not less despread. Regarding performance, FCEVs, typically utilized for traveling longer distances, generally perform better than BEVs.
If all goes according to plan, the price of hydrogen fuel at the pump might drop from EUR 9.50 per kg to as low as EUR 1.5 per kg in the year 2050. FCEVs would have a fighting chance against BEVs if they had a price point of EUR 2.5 per kilogram. However, the success of this pricing would be contingent on a high degree of subsidy and market take-up. Fuel-cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) would only succeed if the costs of similar completely electric vehicles increased. In the most pessimistic scenario, the price of hydrogen fuel in 2050 would barely decrease, reaching EUR 8.50 per kg [23].
Based on historical data on electrolyzer investment expenses, Wright’s Law, also known as the learning curve, suggests a learning rate of around 18% [25][26][27]. However, low and high estimates of 12 to 20% have been used by others [28]. The historical learning rate for different types of technology likewise varies significantly from one instance to the next. For instance, the learning rate for lead batteries is about 4%, but the learning rate for portable lithium-ion batteries is believed to be 30% [29]. Because of the learning curve effect, the cost of lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery cells drops by 28% for every cumulative doubling of the number of units manufactured [30].
Assuming both BEVs and FCEVs are powered entirely by renewable energy sources, the overall energy efficiency (i.e., the amount of energy converted into useful work) for BEVs is around 77%, while FCEVs have an efficiency of around 33%. However, the statement also highlights that FCEVs are less energy-efficient than BEVs, meaning that more energy is lost during the conversion process from the fuel source to the energy used to power the vehicle. This means that even if both types of vehicles are powered entirely by renewable sources, FCEVs would require more energy to achieve the same driving range as BEVs, making them potentially more expensive to operate [31]. This significant difference in overall energy efficiency will create a massive challenge for future hydrogen cars. In addition, the cost of FCEVs is much higher than BEVs, and their prices are dropping faster than FCEVs. The energy content of hydrogen is around 33.6 kWh, and the overall energy efficiency is almost half the BEVs; the running cost for FCEVs will compete with the BEVs when the cost of hydrogen is below USD 1.5/kWh. Figure 1 illustrates the cost of useful energy in USD/kWh used to move the BEVs and FCEVs, assuming the cost of electricity is USD 0.1/kWh and the overall energy efficiency for BEVs and FCEVs is 77% and 33%, respectively.
Energies 16 03230 g002 550
Figure 1. The cost of useful energy in USD/kWh used to move the BEVs and FCEVs [23][24][25][26][27][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39].
The preceding number is consistent with the following investigations. A study undertook a cost analysis of BEVs and FCEVs in Europe and determined that FCEVs had a greater cost of useable energy than BEVs. The FCEVs had a usable energy cost of between USD 1.6 and 2.1/kWh, whereas the BEV cost was between USD 0.70 and 0.90/kWh [32]. Another study analyzed the cost of BEVs and FCEVs in the United States and concluded that the FCEVs had a greater cost of useable energy than the BEVs. The FCEV had an energy cost of USD 1.7–2.3/kWh, whereas the BEV had an energy cost of USD 1.0–1.3/kWh [33].
Research comparing the cost of usable energy for a BEV with an FCEV in China determined that the FCEV had a lower cost of useful energy. The FCEVs had an energy cost of USD 0.69 to 0.75/kWh, whereas the BEVs had an energy cost of USD 0.77 to 0.84/kWh [34]. A cost comparison of BEVs and FCEVs in Japan revealed that the FCEVs’ cost of useful energy was more than that of the BEV. The FCEVs had an energy cost of between USD 1.6 and 2.4/kWh, whereas the BEV cost between USD 1 and 1.5/kWh [35]. One research compared the USD/kWh cost of useful energy for propelling battery electric vehicles (BEVs) versus fuel-cell electric cars (FCEVs). The study indicated that the cost of useful energy for FCEVs was always more than for BEVs due to the additional expenses of manufacturing and transporting hydrogen fuel [36].
Considering the cost of hydrogen production and transport infrastructure, another research assessed the future cost of hydrogen fuel-cell cars in comparison to battery electric vehicles. The study concluded that although the initial cost of FCEVs is now greater than that of BEVs, it is anticipated to fall with time and finally become equivalent. Even as renewable energy becomes more prevalent, the cost of manufacturing and distributing hydrogen for FCEVs is projected to remain greater than the cost of electricity [37].
According to Bloomberg New Energy Finance, assuming these prices continue to decline, green hydrogen may be generated for USD 0.70 to USD 1.60 per kilogram in most of the world by 2050, a price comparable to that of natural gas [38]. However, even with this optimistic scenario, it is hard to compete with the prices for electricity from renewable energy as it is currently less than USD 0.005/kWh, and it is predicted to fall even further. Hydrogen cars will not compete with electric cars.
Recent studies on the cost of useful energy for BEVs and FCEVs. For example, a 2020 study by the IEA found that the cost of useful energy for BEVs had declined in recent years, with costs ranging from USD 0.03/kWh to USD 0.12/kWh, depending on the efficiency of the vehicle and the cost of electricity. The IEA also found that the cost of useful energy for FCEVs was typically higher than for BEVs, ranging from USD 0.06/kWh to USD 0.20/kWh, depending on the efficiency of the vehicle and the cost of hydrogen fuel [39]. These estimates are based on average costs and may vary depending on specific circumstances, such as regional differences in electricity or hydrogen fuel prices.
The electric car market has grown rapidly in recent years, driven by increasing consumer demand for clean transportation and government incentives. Major automakers, including Tesla, Nissan, and Chevrolet, have launched electric car models with increasing range and capabilities, making electric cars more practical for everyday use. The charging infrastructure for electric cars is also expanding, with many cities investing in public charging networks and private companies installing chargers in various locations, such as shopping centers and parking lots. This growing infrastructure, combined with the rapid decrease in battery technology costs due to the learning curve, has made electric cars increasingly affordable and competitive with traditional gasoline-powered vehicles [40].
In contrast, the hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (FCV) market is still in its early stages, with limited infrastructure and high production costs. Despite this, some countries, such as Japan and Germany, have made significant investments in hydrogen fuel cell technology and infrastructure and are working to promote the adoption of FCVs. The high cost of hydrogen fuel cell technology is a significant barrier to market penetration, but some experts believe that the cost will decrease over time as production volume increases. Hydrogen FCVs have a more extended driving range than battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and can be refueled in minutes, similar to gasoline vehicles. This makes them a potential option for specific niche markets, such as long-haul trucking, where their more extended driving range and faster refueling times may be advantageous [41][42].
The electric car market is expected to play a significant role in the future of personal transportation, driven by increasing consumer demand and the rapid decrease in battery technology costs. The hydrogen fuel cell vehicle market is still in its early stages. However, it may have a place in specific niche markets as hydrogen fuel cell technology costs decrease over time.
The future of trucking is still uncertain, with battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles (FCVs) being explored as options. BEVs have the advantage of being powered by batteries that are becoming increasingly efficient and affordable. Many sizeable commercial truck makers have started developing electric truck models with extended ranges suitable for long-haul transportation. However, hydrogen FCVs also have the potential to play a role in the future of trucking, particularly for long-haul operations. FCVs have a more extended driving range than BEVs, and the hydrogen fuel can be refueled in minutes, similar to gasoline vehicles. This makes them a potential option for specific niche markets, such as long-haul trucking, where their more extended driving range and faster refueling times may be advantageous. The future of trucking will likely involve a mix of both BEVs and FCVs, depending on the specific needs of the operations. BEVs will likely be used for shorter hauls, while FCVs may be better suited for longer-haul operations.
FCEVs are significantly more expensive than BEVs, whose costs are falling more rapidly. The energy content of hydrogen is approximately 33.6 kWh, and the overall energy efficiency is almost half that of BEVs; the running cost for FCEVs will begin to compete with BEVs when the cost of hydrogen falls below USD 1.5/kWh, assuming the cost of electricity from renewable energy sources is approximately USD 0.1/kWh; however, if the cost of electricity is USD 0.05/kWh, hydrogen cars will not be able to compete with electric cars.
The learning curve concept refers to the decrease in the cost of production for a particular technology over time as more units are produced, and the technology becomes more mature. This can have a significant impact on the market penetration of technology.
In the case of electric cars, the learning curve is already well underway, with the cost of battery technology decreasing rapidly as the production volume of electric cars increases. This, combined with the development of charging infrastructure, has made electric cars increasingly competitive with traditional gasoline-powered vehicles. As a result, many automakers are investing heavily in electric vehicle technology and predicting that electric cars will play a significant role in the future of personal transportation. In contrast, the hydrogen fuel-cell vehicle (FCV) market is still in its early stages, with limited infrastructure and high production costs. However, some experts believe that the cost of hydrogen FCV technology will decrease as production volume increases and that hydrogen FCVs may become competitive with BEVs in specific niche markets where their more extended driving range and faster refueling times are advantageous. Electric cars are currently more competitive in the market due to the rapid decrease in battery technology costs and the growing charging infrastructure.
It is unclear how the ongoing conflict between Ukraine and Russia will impact the use of hydrogen technology. Wars and conflicts can negatively impact economies and technological development, diverting resources and attention away from technological advancement and deployment. However, it is also possible that the conflict could lead to increased investment in hydrogen technology to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and improve energy security. It is important to note that hydrogen technology deployment is a complex issue influenced by many factors, including technological developments, government policies, and economic considerations. While the conflict in Ukraine and Russia may have some impact, it is likely just one of many factors that will influence future hydrogen technology use.
The recent cost increase can be attributed to Europe’s over-dependence on fossil fuels in general and Russian gas in particular. A significant increase in renewable energy sources would be the most effective solution to this problem. This is the only proper way that Europe can ensure its energy supply in an environment that is becoming increasingly unstable geopolitically. It would not only bring down power costs in the medium and long term, but it would also bring down electricity prices in the short term.

Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), sometimes called passenger cars, no longer play as significant a role in the passenger transportation sector as they previously did due to technological improvements. Many present investments in hydrogen autos appear to be directed by the sunk cost fallacy, which claims that we have already spent a substantial amount of money creating this technology. However, because economies of scale are already in place for batteries and electric vehicles, and charging infrastructure will get cheaper and better soon, it is doubtful that fuel cell cars will be able to compete.

The cost of owning a fuel-cell truck would be higher than that of a battery-powered car that can be charged at a high capacity. Moreover, truck operational expenses are more critical than cars, making a case for fuel-cell electric vehicles even weaker. Despite this, hydrogen-powered vehicles may be advantageous for transporting heavy loads in sparsely populated areas. The challenge lies in determining whether these specialized markets are large enough to drive the commercialization and cost-effectiveness of fuel-cell electric trucks and the required supporting infrastructure. By 2030, carbon-neutral biofuels or renewable synthetic fuels may be an option for powering such applications, depending on the market demand for these niche areas. Such vehicles will never be able to compete in the market for low-carbon road transportation until truck manufacturers begin mass-producing fuel cell trucks as soon as feasible to reduce production costs. Politicians and business leaders need to decide as soon as possible if the market for fuel-cell electric trucks is big enough to justify more research and development into hydrogen technology or if it is time to give up and focus on something else.

The need for clean power sources in-vehicle technology is increasing due to the negative consequences of toxic emissions from internal combustion engines. Electric and hydrogen vehicles are the two leading eco-friendly automobile technologies being developed. The researchers investigated whether hydrogen vehicles will replace electric vehicles. The results showed that fuel-cell cars are unlikely to compete with electric cars due to the cost reductions and performance improvements in electric vehicles and charging infrastructure. However, hydrogen vehicles may be helpful for heavy transport in remote areas. However, the market for fuel-cell electric trucks is limited, and their use cases are much more limited compared to battery-powered electric trucks. In conclusion, hydrogen vehicles will not replace electric vehicles before 2050.

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Subjects: Energy & Fuels
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Aiman Albatayneh
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Adel Juaidi
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Mustafa Jaradat
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Francisco Manzano-Agugliaro
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Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 25 Apr 2023
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