Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1
Roman Perevoshchikov
 -- 1213 2023-03-31 12:52:38 |
2 format correction
Dean Liu
 Meta information modification 1213 2023-04-03 05:14:41 |

Video Upload Options

We provide professional Video Production Services to translate complex research into visually appealing presentations. Would you like to try it?
No, upload directly Yes

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Yes No
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Ushakova, E.; Perevoshchikova, A.; Menshikova, E.; Khayrulina, E.; Perevoshchikov, R.; Belkin, P. Environmental Aspects of Potash Mining. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/42692 (accessed on 23 November 2024).
Ushakova E, Perevoshchikova A, Menshikova E, Khayrulina E, Perevoshchikov R, Belkin P. Environmental Aspects of Potash Mining. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/42692. Accessed November 23, 2024.
Ushakova, Evgeniya, Anna Perevoshchikova, Elena Menshikova, Elena Khayrulina, Roman Perevoshchikov, Pavel Belkin. "Environmental Aspects of Potash Mining" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/42692 (accessed November 23, 2024).
Ushakova, E., Perevoshchikova, A., Menshikova, E., Khayrulina, E., Perevoshchikov, R., & Belkin, P. (2023, March 31). Environmental Aspects of Potash Mining. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/42692
Ushakova, Evgeniya, et al. "Environmental Aspects of Potash Mining." Encyclopedia. Web. 31 March, 2023.
Environmental Aspects of Potash Mining
Edit
This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/mining3020011

Verkhnekamskoe potash deposit. The deposit is located in the central part of the Solikamsk depression in the Pre-Ural foredeep (Perm Krai, Russia). All the main features and problems of underground mining of water-soluble ores and potassium fertilizer production are considered using the example of one of the world’s largest potash deposits.

potash potash waste solid and liquid waste

1. Introduction

Potassium is an essential macronutrient for plant growth and development. Along with nitrogen and phosphorus, it is one of the most important elements of plant mineral nutrition that increases biological productivity [1][2]. Modern agricultural production is heavily reliant on the quantity and quality of chemical fertilizers required to boost grain and horticultural yields in order to feed the majority of the world’s population [3][4]. Potash production has increased by 9% in the last decade, owing to increased demand in Southeast Asia [5]. Global potash production expanded due to increased production in China, Canada, Russia, and Belarus. At the same time, the increase in potash production capacity in China is linked to the need to meet domestic demand [6]. Table 1 shows data on global potash production and reserves for 2020–2021 [7].
Table 1. World potash mine production and reserves in thousand tons of K2O equivalent [7].
  Mine Production Reserves
2011 2021 *
Belarus 5500 8000 750,000
Brazil 454 210 2300
Canada 11,000 14,000 1,100,000
Chile 980 900 100,000
China 3700 6000 350,000
Germany 3010 2300 150,000
Israel 1960 2300 ** Large
Jordan 1380 1600 ** Large
Laos - 300 75,000
Russia 6500 9000 400,000
Spain 420 400 68,000
United States 1000 480 220,000
Other countries - 370 300,000
World total (rounded) 36,400 46,000 >3,500,000
* Estimated value; ** Israel and Jordan recover potash from the Dead Sea, which contains nearly 2 billion tons of potassium chloride.
Potash deposits have been developed for over 150 years. The potash industry began its development in Germany [8][9]. Around the world, potash production depths vary between 300 m and 2000 m beneath the ground surface [10][11][12][13]. Underground mines use the traditional drill-and-blast technique and a mechanized method to mine potash ores at shallow depths (Verkhnekamskoe potash deposit of Solikamsk basin; Kłodawa salt mine of Zechstein basin) [14][15][16]. Solution mining with brine solvent methodology [17][18] is used when productive layers of potassium chloride are deeper.
The world’s largest known deposits of potassium salts are located in Canada (Saskatchewan), Russia (Verkhnekamskoe potash deposit), and Belarus (Starobinskoe potash deposit) [19][20]. Large potash reserves are located in the United States, Germany, and China [21][22]. Potash deposits have been discovered in Central and Southeast Asia, South America, West and East Africa, and North America (previously undeveloped evaporite deposits) [23][24][25].
In Russia and Belarus, potash mining began during the Soviet era. The Verkhnekamskoe potash deposit (Solikamsk evaporite basin) was discovered in 1925, and the Starobinskoe deposit (Pripyat basin) was discovered in 1949 [26][27]. Great prospects for the exploration of the potash industry remain in post-Soviet countries such as Turkmenistan (the Garlyk deposit), Uzbekistan (the Tyubegatanskoe deposit), and Kazakhstan (the Zhilyanskoye potash-polyhalite deposit and the Satimola mining and potash deposit) [28][29][30].
Today, seven potash deposits in Russia contain chloride salts (Verkhnekamskoe, Nepskoe, Gremyachinskoe, Novo-Gremyachinskoe, Yakshinskoe, Zapadno-Petrikovskoe, and Vostochno-Petrikovskoe), and two deposits contain sulfate-chloride and sulfate salts (Nivenskoe and Severo-Krasnoborskoe) (Figure 1) [31][32]. Except for the Nepskoe deposit, which is located in the north of the Irkutsk Region, all deposits are located in the European part of the country.
Mining 03 00011 g001 550
Figure 1. Locations of potash deposits in Russia.
Potash mining activities cause severe environmental damage to the surrounding environment area [33][34]. The environmental, social, and economic problems associated with active and abandoned mines include the salinization of lands and freshwater ecosystems, ground subsidence, and the occurrence of halophyte vegetation in potash mining areas [35][36]. The impact of potash mining causes a decrease in species richness along with a decrease in the salinity gradient in freshwater ecosystems [37][38]. The direct disposal of brine into the river with extremely high chloride concentrations (up to 6 g/L) from potash mines affected aquatic fauna and caused biological degradation [39][40][41].

2. Characteristics of the Verkhnekamskoe Potash Deposit

The Verkhnekamskoe potash deposit is located in the Solikamsk depression, which is one of the largest negative tectonic structures in the Pre-Ural foredeep [42]. Potash mines are currently active in the northern part of Perm Krai (Russia), in Berezniki and Solikamsk. This deposit contains sylvinite (raw material for the production of potash fertilizers), carnallite rock (for the production of synthetic carnallite for the magnesium industry), and brines (raw material for the production of soda ash, energy, and so on) [43]. Potash ore mining at the Verkhnekamskoe deposit contributed greatly to the socioeconomic development of this region and the establishment of a chemical industry center in the Solikamsk-Berezniki industrial agglomeration [44].
The Verkhnekamskoe potash deposit is one of the largest in the world. This deposit has reserves of 96.4 billion tons of carnallite rock, 113.2 billion tons of sylvinites, and 4.65 trillion tons of rock salt [45]. In 1934, the Solikamsk potash plant became the first potash producer in the Soviet Union with the commissioning of an underground potash mine, which had an annual output of 3 million tons of sylvinite and 700 thousand tons of potassium chloride (95% KCl) [46]. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Verkhnekamskoe potash deposit was mined by three companies: Uralkali, EuroChem, and Acron [47]. At the Verkhnekamskoe deposit, potash ore is mined using conventional mechanized underground mining methods at 300–465 m depths [48].
Potash ore mining at the Verkhnekamskoe Potash Deposit is distributed over 11 mining sites approved by ROSNEDRA (the Federal Subsoil Resources Management Agency). In Russia, such sites are referred to as “license sites”, which have official mining permits from the agency. Four of the mining sites are located in the central part of the deposit (Solikamsky, Novo-Solikamsky, Polovodovsky, and Borovsky), and the remaining seven mining sites are in the southern part (Bereznikovsky, Duramansky, Balakhontsevsky, Bygelsko-Troitsky, Talitsky, Palashersky, and Ust-Yayvinsky) (Figure 2). There is also a small Yuzhno-Yurchuksky mining site in the southern part of the deposit (to the northwest of the Bygelsko-Troitsky site) [45][49]. Some of the active mines are located directly beneath the cities of Berezniki and Solikamsk (populations of 148 thousand and 106 thousand, respectively) [50]. There are six producing mines in Berezniki and Solikamsk, with two more mines under construction [51].
Mining 03 00011 g002 550
Figure 2. Map of the Verkhnekamskoe potash deposit.
The salt stratum of the Verkhnekamskoe potash deposit is shaped like a lens, has a thickness of up to 550 m, and covers an area of approximately 8.1 thousand km2. It can be traced for 206 km in the meridional direction and up to 55 km in the latitudinal direction [52]. The salt stratum is composed of four salt layers from the Kungurian Stage (Lower Permian) [53]. The lowest underlying rock salt is composed of nearly monomineral halitites with scattered anhydrite and dolomite inclusions and rare clay and marl interlayers. Above that is a sylvinite zone with alternating layers of sylvinites and halitites, followed by a carnallite zone with intercalated carnallites and halitites. The uppermost overlying rock salt layer contains small amounts of dolomite, magnesite, anhydrite, and clay material [54]. Rocks of the Sheshma horizon (P1šš), Upper Solikamsk horizon (P1sl1), and Lower Solikamsk horizon (P1sl2) of the Permian system are formed beneath Quaternary sediments in the study area (Figure 3) [43][55].
Mining 03 00011 g003 550
Figure 3. Geological setting of the central part of the Verkhnekamskoe potash deposit.
The potash-bearing complex in the Verkhnekamskoe deposit features only halite, sylvin, and carnallite. The content of standard CaSO4 does not exceed 5.2; CaCl2—0.6; and MgSO4—0.2 wt % [54]. In addition to soluble sulfates and chlorides in all strata, the insoluble residue is present and distributed very unevenly both in the cross-section and in the rocks. The main minerals of insoluble residue are mainly dolomite, anhydrite, potassium feldspar, quartz, chlorite, and less frequently, illite, hematite, goethite, magnesite, gypsum, and plant detritus are present in subordinate amounts [56].

References

  1. Sharma, P.P.; Yadav, V.; Rajput, A.; Kulshrestha, V. Synthesis of Chloride-Free Potash Fertilized by Ionic Metathesis Using Four-Compartment Electrodialysis Salt Engineering. ACS Omega 2018, 3, 6895–6902.
  2. Türk, T.; Üçerler, Z.; Burat, F.; Bulut, G.; Kangal, M.O. Extraction of Potassium from Feldspar by Roasting with CaCl2 Obtained from the Acidic Leaching of Wollastonite-Calcite Ore. Minerals 2021, 11, 1369.
  3. Ali, M.M.E.; Petropoulos, S.A.; Selim, D.A.F.H.; Elbagory, M.; Othman, M.M.; Omara, A.E.-D.; Mohamed, M.H. Plant Growth, Yield and Quality of Potato Crop in Relation to Potassium Fertilization. Agronomy 2021, 11, 675.
  4. Chen, W.; Geng, Y.; Hong, J.; Yang, D.; Ma, X. Life cycle assessment of potash fertilizer production in China. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2018, 138, 238–245.
  5. U.S. Geological Survey. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2021; U.S. Geological Survey: Reston, VA, USA, 2021.
  6. Wang, X.; Miller, J.D.; Cheng, F.; Cheng, H. Potash flotation practice for carnallite resources in the Qinghai Province, PRC. Miner. Eng. 2014, 66–68, 33–39.
  7. U.S. Geological Survey. Mineral Commodity Summaries 2022; U.S. Geological Survey: Reston, VA, USA, 2022.
  8. Ciceri, D.; Manning, D.; Allanore, A. Historical and Technical Developments of Potassium Resources. Sci. Total Environ. 2015, 502, 590–601.
  9. Andreiko, S.; Baryakh, A.; Lobanov, S.; Fedoseev, A. Geo mechanical Estimation of Danger of Gas-Dynamic Failure During Potash Deposits Mining. Procedia Eng. 2017, 191, 954–961.
  10. Mamaev, Y.A.; Vlasov, A.N.; Mnushkin, M.G.; Stolnikova, P.V. Changing structure of deformation area of undermined rock layer upon one-layer multichamber mining of salt deposit. Geoecol. Eng. Geol. Hydrogeol. Geocryol. 2021, 12, 32–38. (In Russian)
  11. Sokol, D.G.; Le Quang Phuc; Than Van Duy. Safety improvement in recycle development headings in potash mines: Current problems and prospects. MIAB. Mining Inf. Anal. Bull. 2020, 12, 33–43. (In Russian)
  12. Broughton, P.L. Economic geology of southern Saskatchewan potash mines. Ore Geol. Rev. 2019, 113, 103117.
  13. Pichat, A. Stratigraphy, Paleogeography and Depositional Setting of the K–Mg Salts in the Zechstein Group of Netherlands—Implications for the Development of Salt Caverns. Minerals 2022, 12, 486.
  14. Lavrenko, S.A.; Shishlyannikov, D.I. Performance Evaluation of Heading-and-Winning Machines in the Conditions of Potash Mines. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 3444.
  15. Seifi, C.; Schulze, M.; Zimmermann, J. Solution procedures for block selection and sequencing in flat-bedded potash underground mines. OR Spectrum 2021, 43, 409–440.
  16. Lanzerstorfer, C. Potential of industrial de-dusting residues as a source of potassium for fertilizer production—A mini review. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2019, 143, 68–76.
  17. Santos, S.; Casagrande, P.; Nader, P.; Oliveira, M.; Henriques, A. Technical feasibility study of the exploitation of seabed potassium salts by solution mining. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 2022, 16, 433–441.
  18. Zelek, S.M.; Stadnicka, K.M.; Toboła, T.; Natkaniec-Nowak, L. Lattice deformation of blue halite from Zechstein evaporite basin: Kłodawa Salt Mine, Central Poland. Miner. Petrol. 2014, 108, 619–631.
  19. Liskova, M.Y. Geoecology with modern construction enterprises on extraction and enrichment of potassium and magnesium salts. News Tula State Univ. Sci. Earth 2016, 4, 39–49. (In Russian)
  20. Royer, J.J.; Litaudon, J.; Filippov, L.O.; Lyubimova, T.; Maximovich, N. 3D geostatistical modelling for identifying sinkhole disaster potential zones around the Verkhnekamskoye potash deposit (Russia). J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2017, 879, 12018.
  21. Prakash, S.; Verma, J.P. Global perspective of potash for fertilizer production. In Potassium Solubilizing Microorganisms for Sustainable Agriculture; Meena, V.S., Maurya, B.R., Verma, J.P., Meena, R.S., Eds.; Springer: New Delhi, India, 2016; pp. 327–331.
  22. Kemp, S.J.; Smith, F.W.; Wagner, D.; Mounteney, I.; Bell, C.P.; Milne, C.J.; Gowing, C.J.B.; Pottas, T.L. An improved approach to characterize potash-bearing evaporite deposits, evidenced in North Yorkshire, United Kingdom. Econ. Geol. 2016, 111, 719–742.
  23. Shen, L.; Siritongkham, N. The characteristics, formation and exploration progress of the potash deposits on the Khorat Plateau, Thailand and Laos, Southeast Asia. China Geol. 2020, 3, 67–82.
  24. Orris, G.J.; Cocker, M.D.; Dunlap, P.; Wynn, J.; Spanski, G.T.; Briggs, D.A.; Gass, L. A Global Overview of Evaporate-Related Potash Resources, Including Spatial Data-Bases of Deposits, Occurrences, and Permissive Tracts; Scientific Investigations Report, 2010-5090-S; U.S. Geological Survey: Reston, VA, USA, 2014.
  25. Shen, L.; Wang, L.; Liu, C. Age of the Mengyejing potash deposit in the Simao Basin, southwest China: Constraints from detrital zircon U-Pb ages. Ore Geol. Rev. 2022, 149, 105097.
  26. Titkov, S.N. Role of VNII Galurgy in developing of domestic mining-and-chemical industry. Gorn. Zhurnal 2016, 4, 5–10. (In Russian)
  27. Golovatyy, I.I. JSC “Belaruskali”—The world’s largest producer of potash fertilizers. Gornyi Zhurnal 2018, 8, 4–9. (In Russian)
  28. Zemskov, A.N.; Maksimovich, N.G.; Meshcheryakova, O.Y. Modern trends in the development of the potash industry in the world. News Tula State Univ. Sci. Earth 2022, 3, 369–382. (In Russian)
  29. Maksimovich, N.G.; Meshcheryakova, O.Y. Karst Features of the Garlyk Potash Deposit Area, Turkmenistan. Bull. Perm Univ. Geol. 2016, 2, 64–71. (In Russian)
  30. Moloshtanova, N.E.; Isaeva, G.A. Use of Geochemical Indicators to Determine the Genesis of Sylvinite of the Tubegatan Deposit. Bull. Perm Univ. Geol. 2015, 2, 55–62. (In Russian)
  31. Baryakh, A.A.; Smirnov, E.V.; Kvitkin, S.Y.; Tenison, L.O. Russian potash industry: Issues of rational and safe mining. Russ. Min. Ind. 2022, 1, 41–50. (In Russian)
  32. Vishnyakov, A.K.; Moscovskiy, G.A.; Goncharenko, O.P.; Vafina, M.S.; Vershinin, D.S.; Sopivnik, I.V. Mineral composition of halogenous rocks of the Nivensky hollow of the Kaliningrad-Gdansk saliferous basin and condition of their formation. Litosfera 2016, 4, 102–113. (In Russian)
  33. Cañedo-Argüelles, M.; Brucet, S.; Carrasco, S.; Flor-Arnau, N.; Ordeix, M.; Ponsa, S.; Coring, E. Effects of potash mining on river ecosystems: An experimental study. Environ. Pollut. 2017, 224, 759–770.
  34. Roesel, L.K. Effects of less impermeable sealings for mine piles, Ecological. Engineering 2022, 176, 106515.
  35. Sommer, V.; Karsten, U.; Glaser, K. Halophilic Algal Communities in Biological Soil Crusts Isolated from Potash Tailings Pile Areas. Front. Ecol. Evol. 2020, 8, 46.
  36. Sidki-Rius, N.; Sanmiquel, L.; Bascompta, M.; Parcerisa, D. Subsidence Management and Prediction System: A Case Study in Potash Mining. Minerals 2022, 12, 1155.
  37. Vendrell-Puigmitja, L.; Llenas, L.; Proia, L.; Ponsa, S.; Espinosa, C.; Morin, S.; Abril, M. Effects of an hypersaline effluent from an abandoned potash mine on freshwater biofilm and diatom communities. Aquat. Toxicol. 2021, 230, 105707.
  38. Bäthe, J.; Coring, E. Biological effects of anthropogenic salt-load on the aquatic Fauna: A synthesis of 17 years of biological survey on the rivers Werra and Weser. Limnologica 2011, 41, 125–133.
  39. Gorostiza, S.; Sauri, D. Naturalizing pollution: A critical social science view on the link between potash mining and salinization in the Llobregat river basin, northeast Spain. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B. 2018, 374, 20180006.
  40. Ziemann, H.; Schulz, C.-J. Methods for biological assessment of salt-loaded running waters—Fundamentals, current positions and perspectives. Limnologica 2011, 41, 90–95.
  41. Schulz, C.-J.; Cañedo-Argüelles, M. Lost in translation: The German literature on freshwater salinization. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 2019, 374, 20180007.
  42. Trapeznikov, D.E. Salt deposits of the Ufimian Formation in the Solikamsk depression. Litosfera 2018, 18, 223–234. (In Russian)
  43. Kudryashov, A.I. Verkhnekamskoe Salt Deposit, 2nd ed.; Epsilon Plyus: Moscow, Russia, 2013; 386p. (In Russian)
  44. Sidorova, I.T. Formation of chemical industry in Verchnekamye by the example of Bereznikichemical plants. Bull. Mosc. Reg. State Univ. Ser. Hist. Political Sci. 2010, 2, 80–83. (In Russian)
  45. 85 Years Since the Discovery of the Verkhnekamsk Salt Deposit. Official site of the Russian Agency for Subsoil Use. Available online: https://www.rosnedra.gov.ru/article/3604.html (accessed on 15 December 2022).
  46. Levchenko, T.P.; Konstantinov, I.S. Potash fertilizers production in Russia. Gorn. Zhurnal 2016, 4, 10–14. (In Russian)
  47. Liskova, M.Y. Negative impact on the environment caused by companies that mine and process potassium and magnesium salts. Bull. PNRPU Geology. Oil Gas Eng. Min. 2017, 16, 82–88. (In Russian)
  48. Boyarko, G.Y.; Khatkov, V.Y. Current state of the Russian salt industry. Bull. Tomsk. Polytech. Univ. Geo Assets Eng. 2021, 332, 179–190.
  49. Bayandina, E. Study of Geological Conditions and Results of Selective Attrition of the Sylvinite Core during Exploration of the Verkhnekamskoye Field. Ph.D. Thesis, Sergo Ordzhonikidze Russian State University for Geological Prospecting, Moscow, Russia, 2017. (In Russian).
  50. Kovalev, O.V.; Mozer, S.P. Some approaches to secure mining of potash deposits. J. Min. Inst. 2014, 207, 55–59. (In Russian)
  51. Samsonov, S.; Baryakh, A. Estimation of Deformation Intensity above a Flooded Potash Mine Near Berezniki (Perm Krai, Russia) with SAR Interferometry. Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 3215.
  52. Konstantinova, S.A.; Aptukov, V.N. Some Problems in the Mechanics of Deformation and Fracture of Salt Rocks; Nauka: Novosibirsk, Russia, 2013; 190p. (In Russian)
  53. Chaikovskiy, I.I.; Korotchenkova, O.V.; Trapeznikov, D.E. New genetic type of leaching zones in the salts of the Verkhnekamskoe salt deposit: Hydrochemical, mineralogical and structural indicators. Litol. I Polezn. Iskopayemyye 2019, 4, 337–350.
  54. Chaikovskiy, I.I. Evolution of the Chemical Composition of Primary Salts of the Verkhnekamskoe deposit. Uchenye Zap. Kazan. Univ. Seriya Estestv. Nauk. 2020, 162, 290–301.
  55. Maksimovich, N.G.; Pervova, M.S. Influence of the mineralized water crossflows of the Upper-Kama potash-magnesium salt deposit on the subsurface hydrosphere. Eng. Surv. 2012, 1, 22–28.
  56. Chaikovskiy, I.I.; Utkina, T.A.; Isaeva, G.A. Evolution of mineral composition of insoluble salt residue from the verkhnekamskoe deposit. Mountain Echo 2021, 4, 17–20.
More
© Text is available under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms and Conditions and Privacy Policy.
Upload a video for this entry
Information
Subjects: Environmental Sciences
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Evgeniya Ushakova
,
Anna Perevoshchikova
,
Elena Menshikova
,
Elena Khayrulina
,
Roman Perevoshchikov
,
Pavel Belkin
View Times: 1.2K
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 03 Apr 2023
Table of Contents
    1000/1000
    Hot Most Recent
    ScholarVision Creations
    Feedback