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Sivamaruthi, B.S.; Alagarsamy, K.; Thangaleela, S.; Bharathi, M.; Kesika, P.; Chaiyasut, C. Mechanisms of Rice Bran-Mediated Anti-Obesity Properties. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/42685 (accessed on 11 July 2025).
Sivamaruthi BS, Alagarsamy K, Thangaleela S, Bharathi M, Kesika P, Chaiyasut C. Mechanisms of Rice Bran-Mediated Anti-Obesity Properties. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/42685. Accessed July 11, 2025.
Sivamaruthi, Bhagavathi Sundaram, Karthikeyan Alagarsamy, Subramanian Thangaleela, Muruganantham Bharathi, Periyanaina Kesika, Chaiyavat Chaiyasut. "Mechanisms of Rice Bran-Mediated Anti-Obesity Properties" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/42685 (accessed July 11, 2025).
Sivamaruthi, B.S., Alagarsamy, K., Thangaleela, S., Bharathi, M., Kesika, P., & Chaiyasut, C. (2023, March 31). Mechanisms of Rice Bran-Mediated Anti-Obesity Properties. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/42685
Sivamaruthi, Bhagavathi Sundaram, et al. "Mechanisms of Rice Bran-Mediated Anti-Obesity Properties." Encyclopedia. Web. 31 March, 2023.
Mechanisms of Rice Bran-Mediated Anti-Obesity Properties
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/foods12061300

Rice is a major cereal crop and a staple food for nearly 50% of people worldwide. Rice bran (RB) is a nutrient-rich by-product of rice processing. RB is rich in carbohydrates, fibers, proteins, lipids, minerals, and several trace elements (phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, potassium, and manganese). The extraction process and storage have influenced RB extracts and RB oil’s quality. The RB composition has also varied on the rice cultivars. The color of RB indicates the richness of the bioactive compounds, especially anthocyanins. γ-oryzanol, tocopherols, tocotrienols, and unsaturated fatty acids are major components of RB oil. It has been established that RB supplementation could improve the host’s health status. Several preclinical and clinical studies have reported that RB has antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, anticolitis, and antidiabetic properties. The beneficial biological properties of RB are partially attributed to its ability to alter the host microbiome and help to maintain and restore eubiosis. Non-communicable diseases (NCDs), including heart disease, diabetes, cancer, and lung disease, account for 74% of deaths worldwide. Obesity is a global health problem and is a major reason for the development of NCDs. The medical procedures for managing obesity are expensive and long-term health supplements are required to maintain a healthy weight. Thus, cost-effective natural adjuvant therapeutic strategy is crucial to treat and manage obesity. 

rice bran microbiome γ-oryzanol

1. Introduction

Oryza sativa (rice) is a common food crop worldwide and is cultivated in several countries. Rice is one of the major sources of carbohydrates, especially in low-income countries [1]. Rice bran (RB) is the by-product of the rice milling process and a major food waste. RB contains fat (12 to 25%), starch (10 to 20%), protein (10 to 16%), celluloses (10 to 12%), hemicellulose (8 to 11%), fiber (6 to 15%), reducing sugar (3 to 8%), ash (6.5 to 10%), and phenolic acids, γ-oryzanol, and tocopherols [2][3]. RB has minerals such as magnesium, iron, and phosphorus [4]. Full fat RB contains 18–22% oil and bioactive phytochemicals such as oryzanols, phytosterols, tocotrienols, squalene, polycosanols, and phytic acid, ferulic acid, and inositol hexaphosphate [5]. Thus, RB could be deemed a sustainable, functional bioactive candidate for several applications, including the pharmacology and cosmetic industries. RB could reduce the risk of several chronic diseases [6].
RB is mainly used for oil extractions, and the processing of RB yields several by-products, including RB fatty acid distillate, wax, and defatted RB. RB oil (RBO) composition varies depending on the extraction methods [7]. RBO contains nutritionally beneficial compounds like sterols, tocopherols, tocotrienols, γ-oryzanol, range of fats and other bioactive compounds [8]. γ-oryzanol has a beneficial effect on lipid metabolism [9], glucose metabolism [10], and the cardiovascular system [11]. RB also contains gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), a known neurotransmitter [8].
Obesity is a global health problem and is a chronic disease characterized by the excessive accumulation of body fat. Exercise, diets (carbohydrate-restricted diets, carbohydrate-reduced high-protein diets, low-fat diets, fiber-rich Mediterranean diets), bariatric surgery, medicines, and micro-RNA-based treatments are clinical strategies to prevent and treat obesity [12]. Besides the abovementioned strategies, maintaining healthy gut microbiota and psychological management also influence the obese condition [12]. Phenolic compounds also play an important role in regulating obesity and gut microbiota [13]. Gut microbiota influences almost all of the human physiological, biological, and psychological conditions. Gut microbiota is a crucial factor in intestinal barrier function and homeostasis, regulation of metabolism, and the immune system. Gut dysbiosis is associated with cardiovascular disease, diabetes, cancers, inflammatory diseases, and obesity [14]. Diet influences gut microbial composition [15], so bioactive supplements in the diet may positively regulate microbiota and body weight [16]. The phenolic compounds could regulate the metabolic syndrome through gut microbiota [17]. Studies have shown that the dietary supplementation of RB altered Enterobacteriaceae, Streptococcaceae, Enterococcaceae, Lachnospiraceae, and Ruminococcaceae [18], Bacteroidetes, Coprococcus, Lachnobacterium, Firmicutes, Ruminococcus, and Ethanoligenens [19], and improved gut microbial diversity [20].
Clinical studies have shown that dietary supplementation of RB (regular diet + RB extract) could improve lipid profile, blood pressure, and serum glucose level, and the inflammatory system of obese subjects [21][22]. The intervention of RB, an energy/carbohydrate diet, and plant sterols may improve the obesity-associated parameters in obese people [23][24].

2. Phytochemical Composition of Rice Bran

Rice is rich in carbohydrates, proteins, fatty acids, vitamins, traces of minerals, phenolic acids, terpenoids, steroids, and alkaloids [25][26][27]. The phytochemicals of various rice types are categorized into carotenoids, phenolics, alkaloids, nitrogen, and organosulfur-containing compounds. The phenolic components are sub-divided into phenolic acids, flavonoids, tannins, and coumarins [28]. RB contains a variety of phytochemicals that benefit human health [29]. The composition and percentage of RB differ according to the rice cultivars, pre-treatment for milling, milling methods, degree of milling, and extraction methods [30]. The milling process of rice yields RB and various by-products that contain vitamin E, thiamine, niacin, and minerals such as calcium, aluminum, chlorine, iron, magnesium, manganese, sodium, potassium, phosphorus, and zinc [31][32]. Among the by-products, RB possesses non-saponifiable lipids, including γ-oryzanol, vitamin E, polyphenols such as ferulic acid, caffeic acid, salicylic acid, and phytosterols β-sitosterol [33], with high nutritive value and many health benefits [34]. These secondary metabolites of RB have various physiological and ecological functions, such as antimicrobial, insecticidal, and allelopathic activities, and have cytotoxic, antioxidant, antidiabetic, antitumor, hypocholesterolemic, and neuroprotective properties [35][36]. Most phytocompounds are available in the lipid fraction and are called RB oil (RBO) [37].
RBO is a rich source of tocopherols and tocotrienols, widely used in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries [38][39]. RBO is highly rich in tocopherols, tocotrienols, and γ-oryzanol. The quality and bioactivities of RBO vary according to the extraction and refining methods. The influence of various extraction methods on total tocols, γ-oryzanol contents, and antioxidant characteristics of Chiang Mai black rice, Mali red rice, and Suphanburi-1 brown rice were reported. The phytochemical composition of RBO extracted by hexane, hot and cold pressed, and supercritical fluid extraction methods were studied. Among these extraction methods, a high quantity of RBO was obtained from the hexane and supercritical fluid extraction methods. The RBO obtained from all three extraction types holds a significantly higher amount of γ tocotrienol. However, the superior RBO quality was sustained, and the phytochemical contents and antioxidant properties remained intact in hexane-extracted samples compared to other methods [7]. It is likely that the RB extract of Chiang Mai black rice, Mali red rice, and Suphanburi-1 brown rice varieties are rich in phenolic acids, flavonoids, and anthocyanins [28].
The defatted RB is a rich source of protein (11 to 15%) and is suitable for food applications. The protein content of RB is two-fold higher than other parts of rice. The outer layer of RB has especially high protein content, and it will reduce with the increasing milling process. The protein concentration differs among the rice varieties due to different mechanisms of protein accumulation in the grains [40]. RB protein is nutritionally superior with a prominent amino acid profile and is rich in lysine, aspartic acid, glycine, arginine, alanine, cystine, histidine, and threonine compared to other cereal proteins [41]. RB proteins are mostly the storage protein and including the albumin, globulin, glutelin, and prolamin with high functional properties, helps to store nitrogen, carbon, and sulfur for grain and results in dense deposits called protein bodies [42]. RB proteins are used in the food industry as a food ingredient and additional food formulations, and as a natural emulsifier in food products, because of their nutritional quality [43][44].
RB contains approximately 12% dietary fiber, mostly insoluble cellulose and hemicellulose [4][45], and traces of soluble fibers such as pectin and β-glucan [46]. Various varieties of white RB contain phenolic compounds, including ferulic acid, isoferulic acid, vanillic acid, p-coumaric acid, sinapic and syringic acids, and flavonoids such as rutin, myricetin, and quercetin-3-glucuronide [47][48]. Some studies revealed the presence of tocols in white RB, which includes α-tocopherols, α-tocotrienols, γ-tocopherols, γ-tocotrienols, δ-tocopherols, δ-tocotrienols, and γ-oryzanols, and squalene and phytosterols such as stigmasterol, campesterol, and β-sitosterol [49][50]. γ-oryzanol is present in the form of steryl ferulate, and the fraction of γ-oryzanol in RBO varies depending on the rice cultivar and extraction methods [51]. The RB metabolome study identified 453 phytochemicals, with 46% of them amino acids, cofactors, vitamins, and secondary metabolites with health benefits. The metabolites were classified as anti-inflammatory (n = 35), antimicrobial (n = 15), antihypertensive (n = 12), anticancer (n = 11), antihyperlipidemic (n = 8), antihyperglycemic (n = 6), and 2 anti-obesogenic (n = 2) compounds [29]. The saturated fatty acids in RB act as antioxidants and anticancer compounds [52]. Oryzanol possesses very high antioxidant properties that tocopherols lack. γ-oryzanol shows a structural similarity with cholesterol and helps reduce oxidative stress and maintain cell functionality [53]. Germinated RB is rich in γ-amino butyric acid (GABA), dietary fiber, ferulic acid, tocotrienols, and γ-oryzanol [54]. RB is also a high-quality protein with more digestibility. It is hypoallergenic [55], including albumin, globulin, glutelin, and prolamin, and its RB protein fractions differ according to rice varieties [42].
The phenolic acids in rice are classified into soluble-free, soluble-conjugated, and insoluble-bound forms. The insoluble bound forms of phenolic acid are covalently attached to the structural components of cells, which are cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, and other proteins [56]. Generally, pigmented rice contains more phenolic acids than non-pigmented rice varieties [57]. Rice varieties of Oryza sativa, O. japonica, and O. sativa sp. indica from different regions of China were evaluated for their phenolic acids content. The results showed that 12 phenolic compounds are present in all rice varieties. O. japonica has a higher phenolic content than other studied varieties [58]. The free, bound, and total phenolic and flavonoid compounds differ in chemical composition and antioxidant activities in defatted RB and their soluble and insoluble fibers were evaluated by Zhao et al. The soluble fiber from defatted RB has low total phenolic and total flavonoid contents. The insoluble fiber from defatted RB has low free phenolics and high bound phenolics. They found 17 monomeric phenolic compounds in defatted RB, including gallic acid, syringic acid, vanillin, epicatechin, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, sinapic acid, quercitrin, isoquercitrin, caffeic acid methyl, and ferulic acid methyl [59].
Sompong et al. reported the phytochemical content of nice red and three black rice cultivars from Thailand, China, and Sri Lanka. They identified cyanidin-3-glucoside and peonidin-3-glucoside as predominant anthocyanins in black rice. The highest total phenolic content was observed in the red Thai rice variety (Bahng Gawk). Moreover, red rice varieties showed the major free form of ferulic acid, protocatechuic acid, and vanillic acid. In contrast, black rice varieties were rich in protocatechuic acid, then ferulic and vanillic acid [60]. The Hashemi RB extracts are abundant with phenolic contents, including ferulic, gallic, and chlorogenic acids [27]. Thai rice cultivars contain phenolic acids such as caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, protocatechuic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, and syringic acid, and p-coumaric acid, anthocyanins, tocols and γ-oryzanol. The concentration of phenolic acids differs among rice varieties [61]. The impact of extraction methods on the yield of anthocyanins was studied in nine different Thai rice cultivars, including Hawm nil, Hawm kanya, and Kum (black grains), Sang yod and Red jasmine (red grains), and Hawm ubon, Lao tek, Jasmine rice 105, and Sin lek (white grains). The results showed that the extraction methods affected the phytochemical content of the extracts. Insoluble phenolic compounds were significantly higher than soluble phenolic compounds. Among these rice varieties, black grains showed higher anthocyanins and phenolic compounds than red and white grains [62]. The purple rice ban has a high proportion of anthocyanins [40].
Huang and Lai investigated the profiles of free and bound phenolics and flavonoid compounds in six pigmented rices’ outer and inner RB. The 80% ethanol extracts of red rice varieties from Taibalang, Taiwan, and Thailand were reported to have proanthocyanin, anthocyanin, vitamin E, and γ-oryzanol. Proanthocyanins were found in red RB and were absent in black RB. HPLC with photodiode array/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry identified protocatechualdehyde in the bound fraction of red RB. The crude lipid, protein, ash, and total dietary fiber were higher in outer RB than inner RB. Moreover, phenolics and flavonoids in free fractions were higher than inbound fractions. The colored RB contains α, β, γ, and δ- tocopherol and α, γ, and δ tocotrienol [63].
Flavonoids are another group of secondary metabolites present in rice and are classified as flavones, flavanols, flavanones, flavanonols, and anthocyanins with extraordinary antioxidant capacities [64]. Flavones from the Njavara rice variety had a potential cytotoxicity effect against cancer cells [65]. Sakuranetin is a flavanone type of phytoalexin that works against plant pathogens. Moreover, it acts as a pharmaceutical agent that induces adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 cells, thus regulating glucose homeostasis in animals [66], and has anti-inflammatory [67], antimutagenic [68], antileishmanial, and antitrypanosomal activities [69]. The differences in flavonoid contents in different white, red, and black-pigmented rice varieties were reported. Black RB has a high content of cyanidin-3-glucoside, peonidin-3-glucoside, quercetin, dihydromyricetin, naringin, and taxifolin. Red RB is rich in catechin and epicatechin. The red and black RB extracts exhibited higher antioxidant activity than the white RB extract [70].
Anthocyanins are water-soluble pigments belonging to flavonoids responsible for colors in plant tissues with significant antioxidant activities and rich in pigmented rice varieties. Cyanidin, cyanidin-3-O-gentiobioside, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside, peonidin, and peonidin-3-O-glucoside are certain types of anthocyanins identified in black rice kernels [64][71]. The black rice O. sativa L. indica is rich in anthocyanins, which impart heavy pigmentation to the outer layer of the rice. Black rice contains 95% of total anthocyanins, including delphinidin, pelargonidin, peonidin, cyanidin, malvidin, and petunidin [72][73]. Black rice’s outer bran is richer in anthocyanin than its inner RB. Cyanidin-3-glucoside, peonidin-3-glucoside, and cyanidin-3-rutinoside were found in black and red RB. Black rice contained more protocatechuic and vanillic acid than red RB [63]. Three groups of Thai rice—black glutinous, black non-glutinous, and white non-glutinous rice—were studied for terpenoids. Among these rice varieties, black non-glutinous rice has high monoterpenoids. Monoterpenoid odorants such as limonene, trans-β-ocimene, β-cymene, and linalool are found more in the bran of Thai white jasmine rice Khao Dawk Mali 105 variety. Monoterpenoids (n = 19) and sesquiterpenoids (n = 9) were found in all three rice varieties. Black non-glutinous RB contains more monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids than other RB. The terpenoids (limonene, trans-β-ocimene, β-cymene, linalool, and myrcene) were found in all three RB types. More specifically, trans-β-ocimene and β-cymene were high in white jasmine RB. Myrcene was only detected in black rice varieties [74].
The phytochemical composition of RB is influenced by the types of rice cultivars, extraction methods, and milling process. The three-dimensional structure of representative phytochemicals of RB is illustrated in Figure 1.
Foods 12 01300 g001 550
Figure 1. The representative major phytochemicals present in rice bran. Chemical structures were drawn using free online ChemDoodle Web software (https://web.chemdoodle.com/demos/2dsketcher, accessed on 28 February 2023).
All values are mean ± SD. RB: Rice bran; TPC: total phenolic content; TFC: Total flavonoid content; DM: Dry material; DW: Dry weight; CF: Crude fat; ND: Not detected; GAE: Gallic acid equivalent; RE: Rutin equivalent; CE: Catechin equivalent; FA: Ferulic acid; LAB: Lactic acid bacteria; CAE: Caffeic acid equivalent; SSF: Solid state fermentation; TA: Total anthocyanin; CY 3-GLU: Cyanidin-3-glucoside; PN 3-GLU: Peonidin-3-glucoside; CY 3-RUT: Cyanidin-3-rutonoside; FIR: Far-infrared radiation; HPLC- High-performance liquid chromatography; Pro ACN: proanthocyanin; Total ACN: total anthocyanin; Eq: Equivalent; Sample 1: Rice bran samples obtained from Lanna Rice Research Center, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand; RFRB: Rice fractions of rice bran; DRB: Dried rice bran; RBE: Rice bran extract.

3. Mechanisms Associated with the Anti-Obesity Property of Rice Bran

Studies in human and rodent models have suggested that dietary RB improves the cholesterol profile, antioxidant and inflammatory status, blood and vascular parameters, adipose, liver, and pancreas parameters, host metabolism, and microbiome, thereby delivering health benefits to the host.
The anti-obesity property of RB was not attributed to a single biological event, which is the result of several bioprocesses. The complete molecular mechanism associated with the beneficial effects of dietary RB has yet to be elucidated.
Briefly, RB supplementation alters the host metabolism (SCFAs, serum metabolites) [75] and facilitates fecal cholesterol excretion [76].
The overall host inflammatory system was improved during RB supplementation. In particular, C-RP, TNF-α, COX-2, VCAM-1, IL-6, and IL-1β levels were improved in serum and adipose tissue and improved vascular and microvascular inflammation [76][77][78][79]. Moreover, RB supplementation improved the expression of IRS-2 (insulin receptor), GLUT-2 (glucose transporter), and glucokinase in the pancreas [80], glucose–insulin homeostasis [81], and reduced the pancreatic islet size and pancreatic insulin [82].
Obesity alters adipocytes and several other cellular mechanisms, which causes an increase in systemic oxidative stress [83] and chronic inflammation [84]. Dietary RB improved the antioxidant system of the host by significantly affecting the levels and expressions of iNOS, superoxide, NADPH oxidase, and SOD and CAT activities [76][85][86].
RB intervention significantly improved adipogenesis, reduced adipocyte size and adipose tissue mass, reduced adipocyte hypertrophy and lipid accumulation, and expressions of VEGF and MMP-2 in visceral fat tissue [78][81][87][88][89].
Regarding the microbiome, dietary RB and fermented RB significantly improved the beneficial microbial load (Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes) and α-diversity of microbiota and reduced the pathogenic bacterial load (e.g., Shigella sp.) in obese experimental models [90][91][92]. The possible comprehensive mechanisms relating to the anti-obesity property of RB have been illustrated (Figure 2).
Foods 12 01300 g002 550
Figure 2. The possible mechanism underlying the anti-obese property of rice bran. Rice bran improves the host inflammatory and antioxidant systems and positively regulates the liver, pancreas, vascular functions, host metabolism, and host microbiome. Moreover, rice bran supplementation facilitates fecal cholesterol excretion. TC: Total cholesterol; TG: Triglycerides; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-α; MDA: Malondialdehyde; IL-6: Interleukin-6; IL-1β: Interleukin-1β; iNOS: Inducible nitric oxide synthase; IRS: Insulin receptor substrate; GLUT: Glucose transporter; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor; MMP-2: Matrix metalloprotease-2; HMG-CoA: 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A; NF-κB: Nuclear factor- κB; GK: Glucokinase; SCFAs: Short-chain fatty acids; ↓: Decrease; ↑: Increase.

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Subjects: Food Science & Technology
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register :
Bhagavathi Sundaram Sivamaruthi
,
Karthikeyan Alagarsamy
,
Subramanian Thangaleela
,
Muruganantham Bharathi
,
Periyanaina Kesika
,
Chaiyavat Chaiyasut
View Times: 657
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 31 Mar 2023
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