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Paul, D.;  Kumari, P.K.;  Siddiqui, N. Carotenoid Production via Optimized Fermentation. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/41089 (accessed on 15 December 2025).
Paul D,  Kumari PK,  Siddiqui N. Carotenoid Production via Optimized Fermentation. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/41089. Accessed December 15, 2025.
Paul, Debarati, Panda Kusuma Kumari, Nahid Siddiqui. "Carotenoid Production via Optimized Fermentation" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/41089 (accessed December 15, 2025).
Paul, D.,  Kumari, P.K., & Siddiqui, N. (2023, February 10). Carotenoid Production via Optimized Fermentation. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/41089
Paul, Debarati, et al. "Carotenoid Production via Optimized Fermentation." Encyclopedia. Web. 10 February, 2023.
Carotenoid Production via Optimized Fermentation
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This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/fermentation9020147

Carotenoid production from oleaginous red yeast has been considered as a safe alternative to chemically synthesized carotenoids commonly used in the food industry, since plant-based carotenoids are expensive and an irregular source for obtaining pigments. 

yeast carotenoids low-cost substrate fermentation

1. Introduction

Carotenoids are ubiquitously found in plants, algae, bacteria, yeast, and fungi and are easily identified due to their vibrant yellow-orange color. Their antioxidant property and lucrative color have drawn the attention of researchers and industries for manufacturing a wide range of healthcare, food, or feed products [1][2]. According to a current report titled “Global Carotenoid Market–Growth, Trends, and Forecast (2018–2023)” by 2023, the international market for carotenoid production was predicted to reach USD 2 billion [3]. Out of the several highly valued carotenoid components, β-carotene alone captured USD 233 million in the global market in 2010 and is growing with an annual rate of 3.6% [4]. Astaxanthin and lutein, found in flowers, fruits, and some microorganisms, are also of high economic value. Plant-based carotenoids often vary in their content and productivity depending on the climatic changes and are also dependent on arable land, leading to limited availability or higher production costs [5][6]. Alternately, optimized production of microbial carotenoids as per need and economy is possible via large scale fermentation in bioreactors [7][8][9]. Fat-soluble carotenoids produced by red yeast (e.g., Rhodosporidium, Phaffia, Rhodotorula, Sporobolomyces, etc.) as secondary metabolites, are economical, especially because these yeast strains grow on a vast plethora of carbon sources, such as those obtained from waste feedstock e.g., agro-waste, mill effluent, whey/pineapple cannery waste–water, etc. [10][11][12].
Agro-industrial waste is a rich source for carbon, nitrogen, including minerals/salts necessary for microbial metabolism, slashing down production cost and mitigating environmental problems resulting from such wastes. This leads to the establishment of successful biorefinery, having good ROI (return on investment).

2. Carotenoid Production via Optimized Fermentation

Yeasts are favored over plants or other microorganisms for production of carotenoids due to the following characteristics:
i. Faster growth rate to produce high cell densities with high content of product. ii. Cell cultures can be scaled up easily without any need for an arable land in controllable manner as compared to plant based carotenoids. iii. Capability to use various inexpensive and renewable substrates such as lignocellulosic hydrolysates, organic industrial waste, vegetable mandi waste etc. which makes yeasts reasonable. iv. Optimal growth at low pH is advantageous in reducing bacterial growth, together contributing toward a sustainable process development for strategic industrial applications [13]. Due to robust process conditions, such as, good growth by utilizing variety of carbons sources, low pH, and a broad range of temperature, high cell density and high content of fatty acid and carotenoids could be achieved by oleaginous yeast strains making it economically feasible for process development of future industrial applications [14].

2.1. Factors Affecting Microbial Growth and Carotenoid Production

2.1.1. Temperature

The incubation temperature is the main factor for biomass and carotenoid production which depends on the type of microorganism. The most favorable temperature for biomass and carotenoids production observed in Rhodotorula sp. RY1801 was 28 °C, with about 987 µg/L carotenoid concentration [15]. Other studies also suggested that finest temperature for maximum biomass and carotenoid production was about ~28 °C–30 °C. Maximum biomass as well as carotenoid production was observed at 29 °C for Rhodotorula glutinis [16] in monoculture and 30 °C in co-culture with lactic acid bacteria [17]. Malisorn and Suntornsuk [16] optimized carotenoid and biomass production at 29° and 30 °C as the maximum production temperature for Rhodotorula glutinis. Vijayalakshmi et al. (2001) decreased the incubation temperature of R. gracilis from 32 °C to 24 °C and reported significant increase in product formation from 148 to 622 µg/100 g dry cell weight. Temperature directly influenced the enzyme activities in the carotenogenic pathways thus warranting its optimization by regulating the enzyme activity and concentration of the reactions they catalyze [18][19]; although, depending on the strain, environmental parameters, and medium composition this effect varies.

2.1.2. pH of Culture Medium

pH of the medium is an extremely significant factor which affects the microbial growth along with the type of pigment produced. The influence of pH of the culture medium on biomass growth and carotenoid production in Rhodotorula sp. RY1801 was evaluated by Zhao et al. [15] and the optimal initial pH observed was 5.0. But there was no difference in the biomass and carotenoid concentrations at pH 6.0 and 7.0. Latha et al. [20] reported although the cellular biomass of R. glutinis increased when the pH of culture medium was increased to 7.5 from initial 5.5, the maximum carotenoid production was supported by pH 5.5. Other study also coincided with the results with maximum production of β-carotene by Rhodotorula acheniorum at pH 5.5 [21]. Increasing the pH from 5–7 improved carotenoid production from 3.31–3.93 mg/L, which also reflected upon the increase in other factors that enhance the biomass production simultaneously; although 6.0 was taken as optimal pH [22]. It was suggested that alkaline pH acted as a stressor and alters metabolic rates and nutrient absorption resulting in inducing cellular glucose metabolism genes and therefore enhanced polysaccharide synthesis instead of carotenoids [22]. Under a more acidic pH (~4.0), the growth of the organism is retarded but the carotenoid concentration is high, suggesting that at low pH, yeast is compelled to synthesize carotenoids [23].

2.1.3. Carbon Source

Carbon sources, such as, glucose, fructose, maltose, lactose, galactose, etc. have variable effects in different yeast strains [24]. Some basidiomycete yeast strains, especially oleaginous ones, e.g., Rhodosporidium and Phaffia, grow on various sugars available in hydrolysates of lignino-cellulosic waste matter (wood pulp, corn syrup, wheat straw, peels of vegetables/ fruits), waste water, etc. [17][25][26][27]. They accumulate and store hydrocarbon-rich fats as primary metabolite during early log phase and carotenoids as their secondary metabolite during the late stationary phase of growth by utilizing diverse carbon sources [28][29]. Wild yeast strains utilize xylose, glucose [30], waste extract (inedible parts of fruits and vegetables) [25], acetate [31], hydrolysates [32], whey [33][34], starch [35][36], industrial waste waters [37][38][39] for the synthesis of metabolites. They are relatively tolerant to many forms of stress, including osmotic stress [25] and toxic radicals present in hydrolysates [40][41].
The availability of carbon source present in the medium affects the production of biomass and other metabolites during fermentation [42]. Glucose is the most widely used carbon source for good biomass production and the other preferred C source is glycerol; xylose and other sugar alcohols being lesser preferred C sources [43][44]. A dual stage fed-batch fermentation conducted at 25 g/L glucose concentration during lag and early log phases and switched to 5 g/L during late log and the stationary phases enhanced carotenoid (astaxanthin) production to about 109% [45].

2.1.4. Nitrogen Source

Nitrogen sources including yeast extract, peptone, calcium nitrate, sodium nitrate, beef extract, malt extract, urea, ammonium phosphate, and ammonium sulphate have been successfully used for cultivating yeast for carotenoid production [20][46][47]; whereas other reports mentioned the use of a mixture of ammonium sulfate, potassium nitrate with beef extract for maximum growth and carotenoid production [48]. The studies indicated that 1% yeast extract, and peptone were better nitrogen sources and resulted in the production of 5.7 mg/L and 4.7 mg/L carotenoids respectively as compared to ammonium sulphate and beef extract with 3.8 and 3.6 mg/L carotenoid production. Baraka et al. [46] also suggested that yeast extract at 0.75% concentration was a better nitrogen source for production of total carotenoids (381.15 µg/g), as compared with ammonium sulphate at the same concentration. Latha et al. (2005) also reported that casein acid hydrolysate and yeast extract stimulated carotenoid production in R. glutinis [20]. Enhanced growth rate at 2 g/L ammonium sulphate concentration was used for cultivating R glutinis [49]. For P. rhodozyma, the optimal nitrogen source was a mixture of 13.11% (NH4)2SO4, 22.82% KNO3, and 64.07% beef extract (containing 6% nitrogen) for good astaxanthin production (6.4 mg/L). Nitrogen starvation induced astaxanthin production effectively [50][51].

2.1.5. Aeration Rate

Aeration rate influences cell growth, biomass, and carotenoid production by improving mass transfer of oxygen and other nutrients to the aerobic microbial cells. The effect of the aeration rate on specific growth and total carotenoid production by the yeast showed that both growth and carotenoid production increased considerably when the aeration rate was increased from 0.0 to 2.4 vvm. It was higher than the values obtained from the un-aerated cultivation medium [49]. Simova et al. [52] reported that the yeast strains require more intensive aeration for maximal cellular carotenoid synthesis.

2.1.6. Light

Light is another important factor for producing microbial carotenoids; as, it stimulates carotenogenesis which is a photoprotective mechanism to inhibit the cells from the damaging impact of radiations [53]. Studies show that carotenoid production is affected positively by white light (395–530 nm), depending on the type of the strain [4]. An illuminated phase changed the intensity of the pigment and enhanced carotenoid concentration from 170 μg/g in dark to 228 μg/g dry weight in light. Yen and Zhang [54] reported that the productivity of β-carotene increased from 14.69 μg/g to 24.6 μg/g, in batch reactor where it was cultivated under two white LED (light emitting diode) lamps. Blue light resulted in enhanced carotenoid accumulation in Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (fungus), which did not appear under dark conditions or when cultured in red light. When the fungal filaments were irradiated with blue light of intensity 6.5 micromol × m −2 × s −1, the carotenoid content increased with irradiation time and reached to a peak after 5 days to 71.8 microg/g [55]. Studies also indicated that high light intensities are lethal to the cells [56].

2.1.7. Carbon/Nitrogen Ratio

Carbon–nitrogen (C/N) content affected the growth and carotenoid production in yeast strains [4]. For carotenoid production, a lower C/N ratio (20:1) was preferred by R toruloides and R glutinis, as compared to lipid biosynthesis, where the C/N ratio above 30:1 was required [29][57][58]. C/N ratios above 50:1 decreased pigment production since the acetyl-CoA flux diverted toward fatty acid biosynthesis instead of mevalonate synthesis for carotenoid production. Braunwald et al. (2013) reported that C/N ratio above 70 to 120, when C was glucose, did not elevate the lipid production in R. glutinis, but had a positive effect on carotenoid synthesis [59].
In another experiment with a dual-stage fed-batch culture, lower C/N ratio during the early growth stages promoted biomass production. At late log phase, astaxanthin production (16.0 mg/L) was stimulated using a higher C/N ratio. Stoichiometric analysis showed that under a high C/N ratio, protein biosynthesis was repressed, resulting in decreased NADPH levels required for anabolism, thereby enhancing carotenoid biosynthesis [60].

2.1.8. Sonication

Sonication has a positive effect on enzyme activity and microbial processes [61]. Ultrasound-induced enhancement of carotenoid production using wild strain of P. rhodozyma MTCC 7536X and X. dendrorhous culture was reported by Batghare et al. [61]. The media composition and fermentation conditions were optimized using statistical methods in a wild strain of P. rhodozyma. Sonication at 33 kHz considerably enhanced the astaxanthin production by about 27%. Sound waves caused micromixing of substrates, reduced substrate inhibition and might have induced beneficial conformational changes in intracellular enzymes.

2.1.9. Chemical Supplements

Metal salts of Co, Mg, Ba, Fe, Ca, Zn, etc. stimulated carotenoid production in R. glutinis, whereas trace elements present in the medium, influence carotenoid profile in another yeast, R. graminis [62][63]. It was observed that Zn2+ and Al3+ stimulated γ- and β -carotene production, but Zn2+ plus Mn2+ inhibited torularhodin and torulene production, probably because ions were involved in catalysis of some carotene-biosynthesis pathway [4][19]. Few other chemical supplements, e.g., solvents/natural agents stimulated carotenogenesis, including ethanol (10 g/L) or acetic acid (5 g/L) [64][65]. The carotenoid content was reported to increase from 1.65 mg carotenoids g−1 cells to 2.65 mg carotenoids g−1 cells, in yeast X. dendrorhous due to addition of 0.2% (v/v) ethanol to the fermentation medium [45].

2.1.10. Fermentation Modes

Bioreactors are of various types and their modes of operation vary with products and microbes. They offer advantages such as optimal integration of parameters viz., temperature, pH, aeration, agitation, nutrient supply, etc. to ensure higher productivity with economical production.
During batch fermentation, a limited supply of nutrients is provided leading to lower investment costs, and the process does not require much control and is accomplished by unskilled labor. Batch fermentation has the advantages of low investment costs, simple control and operations, and easy-to-maintain complete sterilization. When all carbohydrate is consumed during the stationary phase, the maximum amount of product is formed [30]. The major disadvantage of batch culture is the deficiency of carbon and nitrogen sources, which, once depleted or utilized, stalls the growth and product formation [66]. The biomass produced is not maximum, but this fermentation is good for production of secondary metabolites, since they are formed during the late log or stationary growth phase, when growth is almost stalled. To increase the biomass content, fed batch fermentation may be adopted, where, catabolite repression is prevented by intermittent feeding of the substrate. If the substrate has an inhibitory effect, intermittent addition improves the productivity of the fermentation. However, there is a high risk of contamination due to long cultivation periods and periodic handling. Larger reactor volumes require higher initial investment but can certainly promise good productivity upon accurate optimization [67]. In fed-batch culture, generally two metabolic phases are observed: (i) growth phase, and (ii) product accumulation phase. Phase (i) occurs when all nutrients are available in the medium, and carbon sources (i.e., sugars) are consumed. The biomass grows to a concentration where the process can be continued by limiting substrate concentration. Phase (ii) is activated by nutrient depletion, mostly carbon, and the C/N ratio falls, leading to the accumulation of carotenoids [68]. However, high cell density cultures in R. toruloides and Cryptococcus curvatus using fed-batch fermentation have yielded good lipid production instead of carotenoid production, because the cells do not enter a stationary phase due to multiple feeding [69].
Several expenditures are foreseen for microbial carotenoids such as cost of the feedstock, labor cost, expenditures including operation cost, and other downstreaming costs. However, the total production cost may be best reduced by utilizing inexpensive substrates and supplemented via valuable by-products. The oleaginous yeast strains which can grow and produce lipids and carotenoids on low-cost substrates such as glycerol, agricultural waste, wastewaters, etc. should be identified from the environment and employed for carotenoid production. Waste sector is a globally disorganized sector lacking accurate data [70]. It is estimated that India alone generates around 50 tons of vegetable and fruits waste per annum [71][72][73]. Waste can be recycled after hydrolysis for channelizing to fermentation units in the form of readily available, inexpensive feedstock. Recently, various cheap raw materials and waste hydrolysates have been explored for economical production of microbial products, and sustainable management of waste concomitantly.

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Subjects: Biotechnology & Applied Microbiology
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register : Debarati Paul , Panda Kusuma Kumari , Nahid Siddiqui
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Update Date: 13 Feb 2023
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