Submitted Successfully!
To reward your contribution, here is a gift for you: A free trial for our video production service.
Thank you for your contribution! You can also upload a video entry or images related to this topic.
Version Summary Created by Modification Content Size Created at Operation
1 -- 2857 2023-01-16 14:41:37 |
2 format Meta information modification 2857 2023-01-17 02:36:49 |

Video Upload Options

Do you have a full video?

Confirm

Are you sure to Delete?
Cite
If you have any further questions, please contact Encyclopedia Editorial Office.
Carmona-Martínez, A.A.;  Fresneda-Cruz, A.;  Rueda, A.;  Birgi, O.;  Khawaja, C.;  Janssen, R.;  Davidis, B.;  Reumerman, P.;  Vis, M.;  Karampinis, E.; et al. Renewable Power and Heat for the Decarbonisation. Encyclopedia. Available online: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/40231 (accessed on 28 March 2024).
Carmona-Martínez AA,  Fresneda-Cruz A,  Rueda A,  Birgi O,  Khawaja C,  Janssen R, et al. Renewable Power and Heat for the Decarbonisation. Encyclopedia. Available at: https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/40231. Accessed March 28, 2024.
Carmona-Martínez, Alessandro A., Alejandro Fresneda-Cruz, Asier Rueda, Olgu Birgi, Cosette Khawaja, Rainer Janssen, Bas Davidis, Patrick Reumerman, Martijn Vis, Emmanouil Karampinis, et al. "Renewable Power and Heat for the Decarbonisation" Encyclopedia, https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/40231 (accessed March 28, 2024).
Carmona-Martínez, A.A.,  Fresneda-Cruz, A.,  Rueda, A.,  Birgi, O.,  Khawaja, C.,  Janssen, R.,  Davidis, B.,  Reumerman, P.,  Vis, M.,  Karampinis, E.,  Grammelis, P., & Jarauta-Córdoba, C. (2023, January 16). Renewable Power and Heat for the Decarbonisation. In Encyclopedia. https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/40231
Carmona-Martínez, Alessandro A., et al. "Renewable Power and Heat for the Decarbonisation." Encyclopedia. Web. 16 January, 2023.
Renewable Power and Heat for the Decarbonisation
Edit

Renewable energy (RE) solutions have been classified into technologies based on the use of renewable electricity and those used to produce heat for multiple industrial processes. Electrification will be key thanks to the gradual decrease in renewable power prices and the conversion of natural-gas-dependent processes. Industrial processes that are not eligible for electrification will still need a form of renewable heat. Among them, the following have been identified: concentrating solar power, heat pumps, and geothermal energy. These can supply a broad range of needed temperatures. Biomass will be a key element not only in the decarbonisation of conventional combustion systems but also as a biofuel feedstock. Biomethane and green hydrogen are considered essential. Biomethane can allow a straightforward transition from fossil-based natural gas to renewable gas. Green hydrogen production technologies will be required to increase their maturity and availability in Europe (EU). Energy Intensive Industries (EIIs)’ decarbonisation will occur through the progressive use of an energy mix that allows EU industrial sectors to remain competitive on a global scale. Each industrial sector will require specific renewable energy solutions, especially the top greenhouse gas-emitting industries. 

energy-intensive industries decarbonisation renewable energies

1. Introduction

The EU has set ambitious targets for decarbonisation by 2050 [1]. Part of this decarbonisation relies on the implementation of renewable energy (RE) technologies that replace the use of fossil-based energies. The second pillar of this decarbonisation path must be built on avoiding the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG) into the atmosphere by energy-intensive industries (EIIs). It is well known that EIIs were responsible for a third of the total of such emissions (>508 Mt CO2e) in the EU in 2014 [2][3]. In 2020, the European Union consumed around 2685 TWh of energy. The chemical and petrochemical sectors had the highest energy consumption (22%), followed by the non-metallic mineral (14%); paper, pulp, and printing (14%); and food, beverage, and tobacco (12%) sectors.

2. Renewable Electricity

Solar Photovoltaic, Concentrating Solar Power, and On/Offshore Wind

Renewable power can be obtained from different sources: solar photovoltaic, concentrating solar power, and on/offshore wind. The last decade has seen price improvements in these technologies for power production. According to a recent analysis by IRENA [4], the price of these sources of renewable power has steadily decreased. In comparison, fossil-based energy sources such as coal-fired power plants have operating costs that are higher than their renewable counterparts. IRENA’s analysis—focused on Europe, North America, and South Asia—indicates that the costs of these renewables vary, in part due to the price imposed on CO2 emissions. 
The main advantage of renewable power is its flexibility in terms of implementation. Grid-connected installations harvest electricity for self-consumption and the surplus can be given to the network. However, off-grid facilities operate in isolation. These are placed in remote locations to meet local electricity demands. Off-grid facilities require the installation of batteries to store surplus electricity. By 2021, the European Union had installed around 26.8 GW of photovoltaic capacity [5]. The largest European market was Germany (21%), followed by Spain (19%), France (14%), the Netherlands (13%), Poland (13%), Greece (4%), and Italy (4%). The current worldwide photovoltaic power capacity is expected to grow from 900 GW (EU share of 25%) to 3000 GW (EU share of 5%) by 2050 according to the IEA Roadmap [6].
There are two main pathways for the implementation of renewable electricity produced either from solar photovoltaic, concentrating solar power, or on/offshore wind. The most straightforward pathway is the direct substitution of fossil-based electricity in current industrial processes. The second pathway involves the electrification of current processes based on a heat supply obtained from the use of non-renewable fuels such as natural gas and coal, among others [7].
Electrically powered technologies cover the broad temperature spectrum required by industries [8]. Applications that require low and medium temperatures, such as electric boilers and heat pumps that supply heat and cooling, are not sector-specific and can thus be implemented transversally.

3. Renewable Heat

3.1. Solar Thermal

Solar thermal heat is the energy produced by converting solar energy into usable heat. Solar thermal collectors are the devices used for this purpose. They absorb the incoming solar radiation, convert it into heat, and transfer this heat to a medium (usually air, water, or oil) flowing through the collector. The solar energy collected is transported by the circulating fluid to be used directly or stored in a thermal energy storage tank [9].
There are two types of solar collectors: non-concentrating or stationary and concentrating. A non-concentrating collector has the same area for intercepting and absorbing solar radiation, whereas a sun-tracking concentrating solar collector usually has concave reflecting surfaces to intercept and focus the sun’s radiation on a smaller receiving area, thereby increasing the radiation flux [10].
Non-concentrating solar heaters are already in use on a commercial scale. Parabolic troughs have also reached commercial maturity, with well-documented references concerning their availability and reliability [11]. Linear Fresnel collectors are less mature than troughs, but they are also available on a commercial scale [12]. Parabolic dish and power tower receivers also exist on a commercial scale but they are still at the initial stage of commercialisation in Europe. The total overall production of solar thermal energy in the EU-28 countries in 2016 was around 50 TWh, representing a 2% share of renewable energy [13].
The solar process heat installations applied to industrial sectors are similar to those used in residential buildings, especially for those applications where low (<150 °C) to medium (150 °C–400 °C) temperatures are required. For higher temperatures (>400 °C), more advanced or concentrated solar collectors are required. Almost all industrial processes with a heat demand require temperatures that can be provided by a solar thermal system. Among the EIIs, the chemical sector has a high percentage of low- and medium-temperature heat requirements in its production processes (>50%) and is the most suitable industrial sector (among the EIIs) for the effective use of solar thermal heat. The selection of an appropriate solar collector depends on several factors including operating temperature, thermal efficiency, energy yield, and costs, among others [14].

3.2. Heat Pumps

A heat pump (HP) is a technology that provides heating, cooling, and hot water. There are multiple known applications of heat pumps focused on district heating [15][16]. However, the use of heat pumps for industrial applications is gaining interest due to their potential to aid in the decarbonisation of processes. Heat pumps convert energy from air, ground, and water to useful heat using a refrigerant cycle. Such a cycle runs thanks to a special fluid that undergoes phase transitions and circulates in a closed circuit, which is normally composed of four parts: an evaporator, compressor, condenser, and expansion valve [17].
Air-source heat pumps use the heat of the surrounding ambient air as their primary energy source. These types of heat pumps are considered less expensive compared to other existing heat-pump-based technologies. Air-source heat pumps are installed above ground. Another type of air-source heat pump applied to industrial processes is the so-called exhaust heat pump. It uses the exhaust heat from manufacturing processes. Exhaust heat is typically warmer than the surrounding air. This causes the evaporation-to-condensation process to be more effective. These types of heat pumps are very suitable for the industrial sector due to the available heat streams that could potentially be recovered.
Underwater heat pumps require a water source as the heat-exchange medium, which could be obtained either from the ground, surface, or seawater [18]. These types of heat pumps extract heat from the water source, making the heat available for other applications such as heating, cooling, and the preparation of hot water. Water heat pumps are considered highly efficient due to the excellent temperature characteristics of water as an energy carrier. Additionally, the underwater temperature remains stable throughout the year. This type of heat pump is especially interesting for locations where extreme weather does not cause a drop in performance.
The implementation of heat pumps in EIIs is limited for multiple reasons. There are not enough manufacturers of equipment based on the concept of heat pumps. The available equipment is not able to deliver the broad range of process temperatures typically required by industries. Most commercial manufacturers provide equipment able to supply heat with temperatures up to 90 °C. Above such temperatures, the available options in the market are constrained. Only a few providers offer equipment that is able to deliver heat in the range of 120 to 165 °C. Fortunately, several ongoing projects have demonstrated heat delivery in the range of 160 to 200 °C [19]. EIIs have a large heat demand, requiring temperatures up to 200 °C.

3.3. Geothermal

Geothermal energy is increasingly seen as an energy source that will aid in the decarbonisation of European industries. There are projections that by 2050, around 100 to 210 TWh/year will be available using geothermal energy [20]. The main applications of geothermal energy have been in the residential and commercial sectors in the form of district heating [21][22]. However, applications in the agricultural and industrial sectors are also expected [23]. In industries, geothermal energy can be directly employed to supply heat or steam for processes as diverse as pasteurisation, drying, and evaporation, among others. Geothermal heat and steam could be implemented in industries such as the food-processing industry, chemical production, and material mining. Additionally, the benefits of geothermal energy sources include the provision of local, flexible renewable energy; diversification of the energy mix; reduction in fossil-based fuel imports; and protection against volatile fossil fuel prices [24].
Geothermal energy applications are highly dependent on the below-surface water temperature. According to Dalla Longa and colleagues [24], practically all regions in Europe show an economical potential for geothermal energy applications depending on the depth. Except for Iceland and a few other European regions with clear volcanic activity, the potential to produce electricity from geothermal energy is limited to reservoirs of depths less than 2 km. Direct geothermal applications, such as in agricultural greenhouses or industries, can be developed when reservoirs with depths of less than 2 km are available.
Historically, European countries that have taken advantage of geothermal energy, such as Iceland, Italy, France, and Hungary, among others, have been the first to develop applications based on this energy source. However, applications based on the use of geothermal energy can also be developed in other low- and medium-enthalpy areas [25]. In regions with lower-temperature geothermal sites, applications make use of heat pumps [24].
One challenge concerning the use of geothermal-based energy is related to the financing and development of the infrastructure for a new heat grid [26]. Retrofitting is seen as an alternative to the implementation of geothermal energy not only for its most common application—urban district heating—but also as an energy source for energy-intensive industries.

3.4. Solid Biomass

Solid biomass has been identified as a key fuel for the transition to renewable energies in Europe. It is by far the main feedstock (91%) for bioheat production [27]. There are many conversion processes needed to transform biomass into useful forms of energy, which can be categorised into three main conversion pathways: thermochemical, physicochemical, and biochemical. Renewable heat can be produced using technologies that are characterised as thermochemical conversion processes.
As of 2018, the pulp and paper sector, as well as the wood and wood product industries, used a combined 81% of the biomass used in EU industries for energy consumption. The non-metallic minerals sectors, including glass, ceramics, and cement, are by volume, the third largest industrial users of biomass. Other EII sectors, including the chemical and petrochemical, iron and steel, and non-ferrous metals sectors, use 0.64%, 0.04%, and 0.03% of the biomass for energy consumption, respectively [28].
Biomass combustion to produce heat in combination with electricity is widely applied in several EII sectors. One example is the Polaneic Green Unit in Poland, where the older pulverised coal boiler was replaced with a biomass-fired circulating fluidised bed boiler [29]. Torrefied biomass was applied in the iron and steelmaking industry in existing blast furnaces. Steelmaker ArcelorMittal, Belgium, has started the construction of a new facility called the Torero plant. The produced torrefied biomass will partly substitute pulverised coal and be used as an alternative carbon source [30]. Gasification plants are mainly dedicated to producing heat and electricity from which the heat is used for district heating. There are, however, a few examples of using ‘producer gas’ for pyro-processing systems in cement plants. One such example is in Germany at the Rüdersdorfer Zement GmbH cement plant [31].
Biochar as a by-product of biomass gasification and pyrolysis is of interest to energy-intensive industries as a substitute for fossil coal used in steel production [32]. Biochar in multiple formats has been tested and compared with anthracite reference coals. Melting tests in a pilot electric arc furnace have shown that biochar reacts in a similar way to reference coals. Thus, biochar shows great potential for use in industrial-scale electric arc furnace steelmaking as a substitute for fossil coal. Additionally, biochar obtained from pyrolysis and gasification can be carbon-negative by combining net carbon removal from industrial processes with the production of energy or other added-value products beyond sequestered carbon [33].

3.5. Liquid and Gaseous Biofuels

Biofuels are obtained via the conversion of an organic feedstock either into a liquid (most common), solid, or gaseous form of fuel [34]. Biofuels can be identified depending on the feedstock used for their production in conventional and advanced biofuels [35]. Although conventional biofuels (first-generation biofuels) are known to be produced from edible and land-consuming feedstocks, advanced biofuels (second-generation biofuels) make use of non-food and non-feed organic feedstocks [36]. Although most commercialised biofuels (e.g., biodiesel and bioethanol) are used in the transport sector [37], they are not extensively used in energy-intensive industries within the cement, iron, ceramic, and chemical sectors, to name a few. These sectors still rely on the use of conventional fossil fuels for their processes such as combustion-carbon-based electricity and natural gas for heat production. The former can be substituted more frequently with renewable electricity from variable sources. However, the combustion of natural gas could ideally be substituted by biomethane [38]. Not only is this renewable gas obtained via the anaerobic digestion of multiple renewable organic feedstocks but its use in industries also does not require any modification of current industrial processes.
Independent of the technical feasibility of biomethane, one of its implementation challenges is deeply linked to its availability [39]. It is expected that biomethane will only replace around 8% of the total natural gas consumption in the EU by 2030 [40].

3.6. Green Hydrogen

Hydrogen is an energy carrier that can be produced from fossil fuels and biomass, water, or a mixture of both. At present, roughly 95% of worldwide hydrogen production comes from fossil fuels [41]. Hydrogen is considered renewable or green when the full life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of the production process are close to zero. The most common method of producing green hydrogen is through the electrolysis of water (in an electrolyser powered by electricity), and with the electricity stemming from renewable sources, it can also be produced through other pathways. FCH JU—The Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking—investigated 11 different green hydrogen pathways besides electrolysis, and 6 pathways were considered sound for 2030 [42]
Currently, there is no significant hydrogen production from renewable sources; green hydrogen has been limited to demonstration projects [41] but is expected to be developed in the coming years. In low- and medium-grade heat industrial segments, using renewable electricity is the primary way to decarbonise industrial processes according to FCH JU [43]. However, electric heaters, boilers, and furnaces become less efficient when higher temperatures are required, and their use may necessitate major adaptations of existing production processes. For industrial processes in the high-grade heat segment, hydrogen may, therefore, offer benefits due to its ability to generate high temperatures using process setups similar to those used today. As more than 30% of the industries’ CO2 emissions stem from high-grade heat, these uses have an essential role to play in decarbonisation, certainly for as long as CCS or other innovations are not competitive. Besides its use in high-grade heat processes, EIIs can use green hydrogen for chemical and synthetic fuel production and as a reduction agent (steel industries).
The production of green hydrogen is generally not yet carried out on a commercial scale. It can be used directly for heat and/or power generation, for material use (in the chemical and refinery industries), in production processes to avoid the production of CO2 emissions (in the steel industry), or in CCU processes (in the lime and cement industries). In the steel industry, some companies are exploring the use of hydrogen in their production processes. The three Swedish steel-sector companies, steel manufacturer SSAB, mining company LKAB, and energy company Vattenfall, collectively work on HYBRIT (Hydrogen Breakthrough Ironmaking Technology) and are developing a pilot plant at the SSAB site in Luleå, Sweden. In Germany, the multinational steel production company ArcelorMittal is taking steps to reduce its carbon emissions by retrofitting a production plant to use hydrogen for iron ore reduction. ArcelorMittal partnered with the University of Freiberg to test a hydrogen-based process at its Hamburg steel production plant [44].
Regarding green hydrogen, biological hydrogen production via dark fermentation, photosynthesis, or photofermentation could also be considered [45]. Biohydrogen production is of interest to the scientific community and represents an additional route to green hydrogen production [46]. In the current European context, there exist ambitious goals for green hydrogen produced from electrolysers powered with renewable electricity (6 GW by 2024, 40 GW from 2025 to 2030, and green hydrogen deployment on a large scale by 2030). It seems unlikely that biological hydrogen production processes could cope with such goals [47], especially when biological hydrogen production has only been demonstrated at a low TRL [48].

References

  1. Filipović, S.; Lior, N.; Radovanović, M. The Green Deal—Just Transition and Sustainable Development Goals Nexus. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2022, 168, 112759.
  2. European Environment Agency. EU Emissions Trading System (ETS) Data Viewer. Available online: https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/dashboards/emissions-trading-viewer-1 (accessed on 14 November 2022).
  3. Rissman, J.; Bataille, C.; Masanet, E.; Aden, N.; Morrow, W.R.; Zhou, N.; Elliott, N.; Dell, R.; Heeren, N.; Huckestein, B.; et al. Technologies and Policies to Decarbonize Global Industry: Review and Assessment of Mitigation Drivers through 2070. Appl. Energy 2020, 266, 114848.
  4. Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2020; IRENA: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2021.
  5. Jäger-Waldau, A.; Donoso, J.; Kaizuka, I.; Masson, G.; Bosch, E. IEA PVPS Reporting Countries; Becquerel Institute: Wallonia, Belgium, 2022; pp. 1–23.
  6. IEA. Technology Roadmap—Solar Photovoltaic Energy 2014—Analysis. Available online: https://www.iea.org/reports/technology-roadmap-solar-photovoltaic-energy-2014 (accessed on 14 November 2022).
  7. Lechtenböhmer, S.; Nilsson, L.J.; Åhman, M.; Schneider, C. Decarbonising the Energy Intensive Basic Materials Industry through Electrification—Implications for Future EU Electricity Demand. Energy 2016, 115, 1623–1631.
  8. Madeddu, S.; Ueckerdt, F.; Pehl, M.; Peterseim, J.; Lord, M.; Kumar, K.A.; Krüger, C.; Luderer, G. The CO2 Reduction Potential for the European Industry via Direct Electrification of Heat Supply (Power-to-Heat). Environ. Res. Lett. 2020, 15, 124004.
  9. Anastasovski, A.; Raskovic, P.; Guzovi’c, Z.; Sedić, A. A Systematisation of Methods for Heat Integration of Solar Thermal Energy in Production Processes: A Review. J. Sustain. Dev. Energy Water Environ. Syst. 2020, 8, 410–437.
  10. Kalogirou, S.A. Chapter Three—Solar Energy Collectors. In Solar Energy Engineering; Academic Press: Boston, MA, USA, 2009; pp. 121–217. ISBN 978-0-12-374501-9.
  11. Belessiotis, V.; Kalogirou, S.; Delyannis, E. Thermal Solar Desalination: Methods and Systems; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2016; ISBN 0128097825.
  12. Buscemi, A.; Panno, D.; Ciulla, G.; Beccali, M.; Lo Brano, V. Concrete Thermal Energy Storage for Linear Fresnel Collectors: Exploiting the South Mediterranean’s Solar Potential for Agri-Food Processes. Energy Convers. Manag. 2018, 166, 719–734.
  13. Eurostat Primary Production of Renewable Energy by Type. Available online: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/refreshTableAction.do?tab=table&plugin=1&pcode=ten00081&language=en (accessed on 1 September 2022).
  14. Sornek, K.; Filipowicz, M.; Jasek, J. The Use of Fresnel Lenses to Improve the Efficiency of Photovoltaic Modules for Building-Integrated Concentrating Photovoltaic Systems. J. Sustain. Dev. Energy Water Environ. Syst. 2018, 6, 415–426.
  15. Østergaard, P.A.; Andersen, A.N. Booster Heat Pumps and Central Heat Pumps in District Heating. Appl. Energy 2016, 184, 1374–1388.
  16. Waite, M.; Modi, V. Potential for Increased Wind-Generated Electricity Utilization Using Heat Pumps in Urban Areas. Appl. Energy 2014, 135, 634–642.
  17. RHC-ETIP. Strataegic Research and Innovation Agenda for Heat Pumps: Making the Technology Ready for Mass Deployment. 2021. Available online: https://www.rhc-platform.org/sria_heatpumps/ (accessed on 1 April 2022).
  18. Wołoszyn, J.; Gołaś, A. Coefficient of Performance Stabilisation in Ground Source Heat Pump Systems. J. Sustain. Dev. Energy Water Environ. Syst. 2017, 5, 645–656.
  19. Zühlsdorf, B.; Bühler, F.; Bantle, M.; Elmegaard, B. Analysis of Technologies and Potentials for Heat Pump-Based Process Heat Supply above 150 °C. Energy Convers. Manag. X 2019, 2, 100011.
  20. Dalla Longa, F.; Nogueira, L.P.; Limberger, J.; van Wees, J.-D.; van der Zwaan, B. Scenarios for Geothermal Energy Deployment in Europe. Energy 2020, 206, 118060.
  21. Østergaard, P.A.; Lund, H. A Renewable Energy System in Frederikshavn Using Low-Temperature Geothermal Energy for District Heating. Appl. Energy 2011, 88, 479–487.
  22. Barkaoui, A.-E.; Boldyryev, S.; Duic, N.; Krajacic, G.; Guzović, Z. Appropriate Integration of Geothermal Energy Sources by Pinch Approach: Case Study of Croatia. Appl. Energy 2016, 184, 1343–1349.
  23. Urbancl, D.; Trop, P.; Goričanec, D. Geothermal Heat Potential-the Source for Heating Greenhouses in Southestern Europe. Therm. Sci. 2016, 20, 1061–1071.
  24. Partners, G.P. Developing Geothermal Distric Heating in Europe. 2014. Available online: http://geodh.eu/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/GeoDH-Report-2014_web.pdf (accessed on 1 February 2022).
  25. Kalogirou, S.A.; Florides, G.A.; Pouloupatis, P.D.; Panayides, I.; Joseph-Stylianou, J.; Zomeni, Z. Artificial Neural Networks for the Generation of Geothermal Maps of Ground Temperature at Various Depths by Considering Land Configuration. Energy 2012, 48, 233–240.
  26. Somogyi, V.; Sebestyén, V.; Nagy, G. Scientific Achievements and Regulation of Shallow Geothermal Systems in Six European Countries—A Review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 68, 934–952.
  27. Calderón, C.; Gauthier, G.; Jossart, J.-M. AEBIOM Statistical Report 2017; European Bioenergy Outlook: Brussel, Belgium, 2017.
  28. Calderón, C.; Avagianos, I.; Jossart, J.-M. Bioheat Statistical Report; Bioenergy Europe: Brussels, Belgium, 2020.
  29. BIOFIT: Technical Options for Retrofitting Industries with Bioenergy: A Handbook. 2020. Available online: https://www.biofit-h2020.eu/publications-reports/BioFitHandbook-2020-03-18.pdf (accessed on 1 February 2022).
  30. Hingsamer, M.; Jungmeier, G.; Van Der Stricht, W.; Van De Casteele, S. Environmental Assessment of Biofuel Production Using Waste Wood Integrated in a Large-Scale Steel Mill. 2021. Available online: http://programme.eubce.com/2021/abstract.php?idabs=18806&idses=1175&idtopic=21 (accessed on 1 March 2022).
  31. Large Industrial Users of Energy Biomass; IEA Bioenergy: Didcot, UK, 2013.
  32. Demus, T.; Reichel, T.; Schulten, M.; Echterhof, T.; Pfeifer, H. Increasing the Sustainability of Steel Production in the Electric Arc Furnace by Substituting Fossil Coal with Biochar Agglomerates. Ironmak. Steelmak. 2016, 43, 564–570.
  33. Brown, R.C. The Role of Pyrolysis and Gasification in a Carbon Negative Economy. Processes 2021, 9, 882.
  34. Suurs, R.A.A.; Hekkert, M.P. Competition between First and Second Generation Technologies: Lessons from the Formation of a Biofuels Innovation System in the Netherlands. Energy 2009, 34, 669–679.
  35. Heyne, S.; Harvey, S. Assessment of the Energy and Economic Performance of Second Generation Biofuel Production Processes Using Energy Market Scenarios. Appl. Energy 2013, 101, 203–212.
  36. IRENA. Advanced Biofuels, What Holds Them Back? IRENA: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2019.
  37. Ajanovic, A.; Haas, R. On the Future Prospects and Limits of Biofuels in Brazil, the US and EU. Appl. Energy 2014, 135, 730–737.
  38. Corbellini, V.; Kougias, P.G.; Treu, L.; Bassani, I.; Malpei, F.; Angelidaki, I. Hybrid Biogas Upgrading in a Two-Stage Thermophilic Reactor. Energy Convers. Manag. 2018, 168, 1–10.
  39. EBA. EBA Statistical Report 2020. 2020. Available online: https://www.europeanbiogas.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/EBA_StatisticalReport2020_abridged.pdf (accessed on 1 June 2021).
  40. Eurogas. The Sustainable Credentials of Gas; Eurogas: Brussels, Belgium, 2019.
  41. IRENA. Hydrogen: A Renewable Energy Perspective; IRENA: Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, 2019.
  42. Fuel Cells and Hydrogen 2 Joint Undertaking; Fraile, D.; Altmann, M.; Barth, F.; Pschorr-Schoberer, E.; Albrecht, U.; Lanoix, J.; Bünger, U.; Zerta, M.; Zittel, W.; et al. Study on Hydrogen from Renewable Resources in the EU: Final Report; Publications Office: Luxembourg, 2016.
  43. FCHEA. Hydrogen Roadmap Europe—A Sustainable Pathway for the European Energy Transition. 2019. Available online: https://www.h2knowledgecentre.com/content/researchpaper1125 (accessed on 1 December 2021).
  44. FCHEA. Hydrogen as a Clean Alternative in the Iron and Steel Industry. 2019. Available online: https://www.fchea.org/transitions/2019/11/25/hydrogen-in-the-iron-and-steel-industry (accessed on 1 December 2021).
  45. Mohanakrishna, G.; Mohan, S.V. Multiple Process Integrations for Broad Perspective Analysis of Fermentative H2 Production from Wastewater Treatment: Technical and Environmental Considerations. Appl. Energy 2013, 107, 244–254.
  46. Mohan, S.V.; Chiranjeevi, P.; Mohanakrishna, G. A Rapid and Simple Protocol for Evaluating Biohydrogen Production Potential (BHP) of Wastewater with Simultaneous Process Optimization. Int. J. Hydrog. Energy 2012, 37, 3130–3141.
  47. European Commission. A Hydrogen Strategy for a Climate Neutral Europe; European Commission: Brussels, Belgium, 2020.
  48. Osman, A.I.; Deka, T.J.; Baruah, D.C.; Rooney, D.W. Critical Challenges in Biohydrogen Production Processes from the Organic Feedstocks. In Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2020.
More
Information
Contributors MDPI registered users' name will be linked to their SciProfiles pages. To register with us, please refer to https://encyclopedia.pub/register : , , , , , , , , , , ,
View Times: 360
Revisions: 2 times (View History)
Update Date: 17 Jan 2023
1000/1000