Application of Carbon Materials for Lithium Metal Batteries

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1		Zhenhua Wang	--	3567	2022-12-07 06:56:48	\|
2	update references and layout	Amina Yu	+ 2 word(s)	3569	2022-12-12 01:42:03	\|

This entry is adapted from the peer-reviewed paper 10.3390/batteries8110246

The use of fossil fuels has made invaluable contributions to the development of human society. However, problems such as resource depletion and environmental pollution force human beings to develop new energy systems and adjust the energy structure. New systems such as wind, hydro, solar, and fuel cells are expected to provide clean and sustainable energy for human society. As an effective way to store and transfer energy, electrochemical energy storage has gradually become an indispensable part of the transformation of energy structure. Since the advent of lithium-ion batteries in the 19th century, they have become an irreplaceable energy storage device in various fields.

lithium metal batteries carbon materials composite anodes

1. Electrolyte Additives

The Fermi level of Li metal is lower than most common organic electrolytes, which leads to the inevitable reduction in Li salt and solvent molecules on the anode surface to form a solid electrolyte interphase (SEI). As an important component of the electrolyte, the use of additives can improve the various properties of anodes by forming SEI, changing the solvated structure, or changing the electric double layer structure ^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4].

Different from general electrolyte additives, carbon materials have electronic conductivity and can promote lithium metal nucleation when used as additives. Cheng et al. ^[5] used octadecylamine-treated nanodiamonds as additives in lithium metal batteries. Nanodiamonds with low diffusion barriers provide nucleation sites for Li metal, inducing the uniform deposition of Li metal. The nanodiamond-decorated electrolyte enables stable cycling of Li|Li symmetric cells at 2.0 mA cm⁻² and 1.0 mA cm⁻² for 150 h and 200 h, respectively. A Coulombic efficiency of 96% was obtained in Li|Cu cells. The addition of surfactants is bound to affect the battery. Hu et al. ^[6] added graphene quantum dots into the electrolyte to continuously control the growth morphology of lithium metal. Graphene quantum dots with a smaller size can be uniformly dispersed in the electrolyte without modification.

2. Separator Modification

In lithium batteries, the separator mainly functions to separate the electrodes and allow the electrolyte to pass through. It is a simple and valuable direction to improve lithium metal battery performance by modifying separators. Coating carbon materials on the separator surface is a simple and effective strategy. Carbon materials with higher mechanical strength has an inhibitory effect on dendrite growth. In addition, the porous carbon material with high specific surface area can control the lithium ions passing through the separator to be uniformly redistributed and, thus, deposit uniformly on the electrode surface. For example, Xu et al. ^[7] used carbon nanosheet coatings with cubic cavities to suppress dendrite growth. Connected cubic carbon channels enable stable Li metal battery cycling by modulating Li deposition behavior. Li|Li symmetric cells cycled for over 2600 h at 6 mA cm⁻² and 2 mA h cm⁻², while Li|Cu cells achieved an average Coulombic efficiency of 98.5% at 2 mA cm⁻² and 2 mA h cm⁻². Li et al. ^[8] coated a thin layer of ultra-strong diamond-like carbon (DLC) on the negative side of the polypropylene (PP) separator. The coating not only has a high modulus (100 GPa) to inhibit the growth of lithium dendrites but also undergoes in situ chemical lithiation with lithium metal in the battery, transforming into an excellent three-dimensional lithium ion conductor to redistribute lithium ion flux. The dual role of the DLC/PP separator enables the Li|Li symmetric cell to achieve stable cycling for over 4500 h at a current density of 3 mA cm⁻². Wang et al. ^[9] coated carbon fibers on the surface of separators for lithium metal batteries. The presence of carbon fibers improves the spatial electric field on the Li metal electrode surface and effectively suppresses the tip effect during dendrite growth. Herein, it was also provided with new insights into the mechanism of action of carbon materials to modify the separator.

There are a large number of functional groups on the surface of carbon nanomaterials such as graphene oxide, and chemical reactions can be used to modify or modify these functional groups to obtain materials with specific functions. Li et al. ^[10] coated polyacrylamide-grafted graphene oxide nanosheets (GO-g-PAM) on one side of a commercial PP separator. The robust GO backbone improves the mechanical strength, and the brush-like PAM chains on the graphene oxide surface contain a large number of polar groups such as C=O, N-H and so on, which provide functions for the efficient adhesion and uniform distribution of Li ions at the molecular level. Furthermore, the gaps between the stacked 2D molecular brushes provide a fast pathway for electrolyte diffusion. Liu et al. ^[11] coated the surface of the separator with functionalized nanocarbons modified with lithium p-benzenesulfonate groups and stabilized the deposition of lithium metal by inducing the opposite growth of lithium dendrites from the current collector and the separator. In Li|LFP coin cells, this method can achieve long-term stable cycling (800 cycles with 80% initial capacity retention and 97% Coulombic efficiency).

3. Artificial SEI

The native SEI on the surface of Li metal electrodes is often difficult to adapt to the huge volume changes and electrochemical reactions of the electrodes during cycling. An artificial SEI used in situ and ex situ was designed to obtain a more stable interface structure. Carbon materials have good mechanical strength and good chemical/electrochemical stability. Carbon materials with different structures and their composites are designed as an artificial SEI to stabilize the electrode–electrolyte interface.

Cui et al. ^[12] used a monolayer of interconnected amorphous hollow carbon nanospheres as an artificial SEI layer to cover the Li metal surface. The highly insulating top surface of the hollow carbon nanospheres promotes the deposition of metallic Li under the carbon nanospheres. The carbon layer as SEI can easily adapt to the volume change of Li metal during cycling. The Li|Cu half-cell assembled with ether electrolyte maintained a Coulombic efficiency of 99% for 150 cycles at a current density of 1 mA cm⁻² and an areal capacity of 1 mA h cm⁻².

Graphene has excellent mechanical properties. The presence of defects and functional groups gives it excellent processability properties. Graphene and its derivatives or composites have received extensive attention as strategies for artificial SEI-stabilized lithium metal anodes ^[13]^[14]^[15]. Zhou et al. ^[16] covered the Li metal surface with several layers of parallel aligned graphene. Flexible graphene films can adapt to the volume change of lithium metal during cycling. The Li|Li symmetric cell with this artificial SEI can operate for 1000 h at a current density of 5 mA cm⁻² and a deposition capacity of 2.5 mA h cm⁻².

Benefiting from the simple preparation process and good modification properties of graphene, a graphene artificial SEI combined with three-dimensional current collectors can provide higher Coulombic efficiency for lithium metal batteries. Xie et al. ^[17] grew graphene on the surface of nickel foam by chemical vapor deposition(CVD), and lithium metal was uniformly deposited between the nickel foam and graphene. The graphene-based artificial SEI layer can inhibit the growth of dendrites and improve the cycling stability of the battery. On this basis, Wang et al. ^[18] composited graphene oxide and P(SF-DOL) to form an artificial SEI layer. The addition of polymers with Li-ion conductivity provides the artificial SEI with flexibility and Li-ion conductivity. Combined with the three-dimensional copper foam current collector, the lithium metal battery protected by this artificial SEI maintains an average Coulombic efficiency of 99.1% over 300 cycles at a current density of 4.0 mA h cm⁻² and a deposition capacity of 2.0 mA cm⁻². In addition, graphene can also be composited with Prussian blue ^[19], LiF ^[20], etc. as artificial SEI layers to obtain dendrite-free Li metal batteries.

4. Current Collector Design

4.1. Lithium Metal Anode Using Carbon Material as Current Collector

As an important component of lithium batteries, current collectors not only play the role of transferring electrons between active materials and external circuits but also diffuse the heat generated inside the battery ^[21]. Meanwhile, the 3D current collector design can not only tolerate the huge volume change of Li metal during cycling but also achieve uniform Li deposition by reducing the current density. The properties of current collectors play an important role in the nucleation and deposition morphology of Li metal. Compared with metal materials, carbon materials have the advantages of low specific gravity and high abundance, as well as excellent electronic conductivity and lithiophilicity ^[22]. Thanks to their good plasticity and modifiability, various scales and various functionalized carbon materials were designed as current collectors for lithium metal batteries ^[23]^[24]^[25]^[26]^[27]. The large specific surface area can effectively reduce the local current density. At the same time, the lithiophilicity of carbon materials can be improved through surface modification to induce the uniform deposition of lithium metal. According to the morphological characteristics of the carbon material monomer, it can be divided into several categories from 0D to 3D. Among them, 0D carbon materials mainly include carbon spheres, carbon nanoparticles, carbon quantum dots, etc.; 1D carbon materials mainly include carbon nanotubes, carbon nanowires, carbon fibers, etc.; 2D materials mainly include graphene, carbon nanosheets, etc.; 3D materials mainly include porous carbon, aerogel, and three-dimensional structures built from various carbon materials.

Although different morphologies of carbon materials can be used as current collectors for lithium metal electrodes, in order to obtain large specific surface area and porosity, most strategies are to design materials into 3D structures. The 3D carbon structure provides a larger specific surface area to reduce local current density, higher porosity, and mechanical strength to accommodate the volume change in Li metal during deposition and exfoliation. Infusion of molten lithium metal into 3D current collectors is the most common method, but this also requires the current collector itself to have a certain lithiophilicity ^[28]. Lin et al. ^[29] obtained graphene oxide films with good lithiophilicity through Li-assisted reduction vacuum filtration and then injected molten lithium into the uniform nano-gap of the graphene films. The layered graphene can not only adapt to the huge volume change of Li metal but also stabilize the deposition and interface structure of Li metal. The mass fraction of graphene in the electrode is only 7%, which ensures the high specific capacity of the electrode.

In addition to the simple use of carbon materials to build 3D conductive frameworks, the modification of carbon materials and their surfaces can obtain current collector materials with special functions. Modification methods mainly include: doping, deposition, and chemical group modification.

Doping is a common means of modifying carbon materials. Elements such as N, O, and S can be doped into carbon materials to improve their lithiophilicity. Zhang et al. ^[30] designed a N, S co-doped ordered mesoporous carbon nanospheres as a deposition substrate for Li metal electrodes. The experimental and computational results show that the synergistic effect of N/S double doping enhances the surface electronegativity of the carbon spheres and lowers the nucleation energy barrier of Li-Au on the surface of the carbon spheres, enabling uniform nucleation in the initial stage, thereby inducing branch-free crystalline Li deposition. At the same time, N and S elements also help to form a more stable SEI layer, which prolongs the cycle life (400 h) of lithium metal symmetric batteries at high current density (20 mA h cm⁻²).

In addition to doping, loading lithiophilic metal materials on the surface of carbon materials can induce nucleation and reduce overpotential ^[31]^[32]. Li et al. ^[33] and Tian et al. ^[34] coated the carbon cloth with Au and Ag layers, respectively, and then placed the metal-coated side away from the separator when assembling the battery. Lithium metal preferentially nucleates and grows at the metal coating during deposition. At the same time, the upper part of the porous skeleton of the carbon cloth also provides enough space to buffer the volume expansion of metallic lithium.

There are a large number of active functional groups on the surface of carbon materials such as graphene oxide and carbon nanotubes. Using these active sites to design chemical reactions can obtain carbon materials with specific functions. For example, Gao et al. ^[35] introduced benzenesulfonyl fluoride molecules on the surface of reduced graphene oxide aerogels. During the metal deposition process, the labile molecules not only generate metal-coordinated benzenesulfonate anions to guide homogeneous metal deposition but also introduce lithium fluoride into the SEI to improve the SEI composition on the Li surface. High-efficiency lithium deposition with low nucleation overpotential is achieved at a current density of 6.0 mA cm⁻². Niu et al. ^[36] designed a lithium anode structure based on an amine-functionalized mesoporous carbon fiber framework. The introduction of amine groups enhanced the wettability of carbon fibers to lithium metal, which enabled the smooth deposition of lithium metal on the surface of carbon fibers. The full cell assembled with this anode can maintain stable cycling for 200 cycles at a low N/P ratio (< 2).

It is worth noting that either excess Li metal or excessively heavy current collectors will weaken or even offset the advantages of Li metal’s high specific energy. Therefore, the design of thin and light and lithium-lean/lithium-free anodes has practical application value. The design of the 3D current collector is one of the most widely used and promising solutions for carbon materials in lithium metal batteries.

4.2. Graphite–Lithium Metal Composite Electrode

In recent years, a graphite-lithium metal composite electrode was proposed to simultaneously obtain the intercalation capacity of the graphite anode and the conversion capacity of the lithium metal by depositing a certain amount of lithium metal on the graphite electrode ^[37]. The use of 3D porous graphite hosts is expected to alleviate the volume expansion and dendrite growth problems of Li metal. Compared with the general lithium metal anodes using metal or carbon materials as current collectors, LiC₆ formed by graphite intercalation is considered to have good lithiophilicity ^[38]. Lithium metal can obtain lower nucleation overpotential on the surface of LiC₆, resulting in more uniform deposition. In addition, the current collector material occupies more mass and volume in the electrode, which weakens the advantage of the high specific volume of the metal lithium electrode. The use of graphitized carbon materials with lithium intercalation ability combined with lithium metal is expected to break the capacity limitation of graphite anodes and provide electrodes with higher effective capacity. It is worth noting that ordinary lithium metal batteries often use an excess of lithium metal as the negative electrode, thereby ignoring the volume/mass ratio of the negative electrode in the battery. The lithium-free design of the composite anode is expected to improve the specific capacity of the full cell. From a practical point of consideration, the graphite–lithium metal composite electrode uses a commercial graphite anode as the lithium deposition substrate without changing the existing production process. Graphite has the advantages of high abundance and low cost, and the use of graphite as the deposition substrate of lithium metal has high application feasibility. The design of the composite electrode is actually a compromise between the advantages and disadvantages of graphite and lithium metal. The specific capacity of graphite is improved while maintaining the stability and safety.

Although graphite-lithium metal composite anodes have many advantages compared with graphite anodes or lithium metal anodes, they also face many difficulties and challenges. Graphite was intensively researched and widely used as a mature lithium-ion battery anode. After Li metal is deposited on the graphite surface, the excess Li coating quickly fails in common carbonate-based electrolytes, resulting in a rapid decrease in battery capacity ^[39].

Graphitized carbon materials with various structures and functions have begun to be used as active substrates for lithium metal. These graphitic materials mainly function as 3D current collectors in electrodes ^[40]. A composite electrode with a higher capacity was obtained by depositing lithium metal into the voids of artificial graphite by Cui et al. ^[41]. Wan et al. ^[40] deposited Li metal on a 3D framework wrapped by graphitized carbon spheres, and the full cell assembled with LiFePO₄ achieved a lifespan of 1000 cycles using an anode with 5% Li pre-deposited by electrochemistry. Zuo et al. ^[42] reported that the graphitized carbon fiber electrode can be used as a multifunctional 3D current collector to enhance the lithium storage capacity. Intercalation and electrodeposition reactions can provide areal capacities up to 8 mA h cm⁻² without significant dendrite formation.

However, the research on graphite–lithium metal electrodes often ignores the capacity contribution of graphite itself, which also makes the volume-specific energy advantage of composite anodes not effectively utilized. In recent years, Dahn et al. ^[37] proposed the concept of lithium ion–lithium metal composite batteries. They believe that the use of graphite–lithium metal composite anode can increase the volume energy density of the anode from 530 W h L⁻¹ to 890 W h L⁻¹. However, the composite anode used by Dahn mainly deposits lithium on the surface of graphite to form a double-layer structure, and no further studies on the distribution of lithium were carried out. Zhang et al. ^[43] explored the boundary values for Li plating on graphite. Combined with thermal monitoring, SEM, TOF-SIMS, and other characterizations, the properties of graphite–lithium metal electrodes with different lithium contents were tested. Their results show that the electrode surface has the most uniform lithium distribution when depositing lithium metal with a graphite capacity of 25%. Of course, the boundary value is affected by many conditions such as temperature, magnification, porosity, etc., and more work is needed to verify.

From a material point of view, reducing the particle size of graphite is considered to be more effective to obtain a more stable structure and a larger specific surface area ^[44]. The study of Chen et al. ^[39] showed that the capacity attenuation of graphite–lithium metal composite anodes mainly comes from the accumulation of dead lithium and the decrease in graphite capacity. The results of in situ X-ray microtomography analysis also confirmed this statement ^[45]: the main reason for the decrease in capacity after lithium deposition from graphite is that the graphite under the lithium metal layer is affected by mass transfer and cannot achieve the effective intercalation of lithium ions.

The focus of graphite–lithium metal composite anode research is on the construction of stable SEI and the maintenance of battery capacity. In order to construct a more robust SEI, Wu et al. ^[46] obtained a graphite–lithium metal composite anode with a longer cycle life by coating PVDF on the surface of the graphite electrode. By changing the carbon matrix or electrolyte, a uniform and stable in situ SEI can be effectively constructed. Wang et al. ^[47] fluorinated the edge of mesocarbon microspheres to obtain an LiF-rich stabilized SEI. Benefiting from the extensive research on lithium metal anodes in recent years, electrolyte systems suitable for lithium metal anodes were also used in graphite–lithium metal anodes. Lithium salts such as LiBF₂(C₂O₄)- LiBF₄ ^[37], LiFSI ^[39]^[48] were used in composite electrodes and obtained more stable SEI and higher Coulombic efficiency. Zhang et al. ^[43] used a localized highly concentrated electrolyte to promote more uniform Li deposition, and the full cell matching NCM532 achieved a capacity retention of 80.2% after 500 cycles.

5. Carbon Materials in Solid-State Batteries

In lithium metal solid-state batteries, especially inorganic ceramic solid-state batteries, the solid–solid contact between the electrolyte and the two electrodes is poor, and some electrolyte materials have poor compatibility and affinity with lithium metal. In order to obtain a stable structure, the use of carbon materials as interface layers or current collectors can improve the interface stability and affinity of lithium metal anodes with solid electrolytes. Feng et al. ^[49] obtained a pure air-stable surface on Li_6.75La₃Zr_1.75Ta_0.25O₁₂ (LLZTO) by thermal decomposition vapor deposition (TVD). Benefiting from the amorphous structure of low graphitized carbon (LGC), instantaneous lithiation is achieved, and the impedance of the Li/LLZTO interface is reduced to 9 Ω cm⁻². Chen et al. ^[50] carbonized a mixture of phenolic resin and polyvinyl butyral on the surface of LLZTO to obtain a porous hard carbon layer. The multi-layered pore structure of the hard carbon layer provides capillary force and large specific surface area, which, coupled with the chemical reactivity of the carbon material with Li, facilitates the penetration of molten Li with the garnet electrolyte. The Li/LLZTO interface exhibits a low interfacial resistance of 4.7 Ω cm⁻² and a higher critical current density at 40 °C. Lee et al. ^[51] mixed silver and carbon nanoparticles to make anodes, and during the deposition and exfoliation of Li metal, the silver and carbon nanoparticles moved away from the electrolyte and closer to the electrolyte, respectively. The gradient electrode structure provides both nucleation sites and interfacial protection layers for Li metal deposition. The pouch cells assembled with silver pyroxene Li₆PS₅Cl exhibited high energy density (900 W h l⁻¹) and superior cycle life (1000 cycles, Coulombic efficiency 99.8%).

In addition, graphite–lithium metal composite electrodes can also be designed using the lithiophilic properties of graphite in solid-state batteries. Duan et al. ^[52] cast a mixed slurry of lithium metal and graphite into a pole piece and applied it in an LLZO electrolyte battery. The graphite–lithium metal composite electrode can effectively improve the affinity with the solid electrolyte and reduce the interfacial impedance.

Integrating graphite directly into solid-state electrolytes can utilize the interstitial spaces between graphite and ceramic particles to store lithium metal. Furthermore, the lithium-free negative electrode design can also obtain high specific energy batteries. Ping Liu et al. ^[53] mixed graphite into the sulfide solid electrolyte, and the resulting composite anode could effectively alleviate the infiltration of lithium metal in the lattice gap and prevent short circuits. The critical current density of the electrode increases and the interface resistance decreases.

The main problem in organic polymer electrolytes is their low electrical conductivity. Adding fillers can effectively reduce the crystallinity of the electrolyte and improve the conductivity. Materials such as graphene ^[54]^[55] and carbon quantum dots ^[56] as fillers added to polymer electrolytes can simultaneously improve the mechanical properties and electrical conductivity of the electrolytes.

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Zeyu Wu

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