Mosasaurus

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Mosasaurus (/ˌmoʊzəˈsɔːrəs/; "lizard of the Meuse River") is the type genus (defining example) of the mosasaurs, an extinct group of aquatic squamate reptiles. It lived from about 82 to 66 million years ago during the Campanian and Maastrichtian stages of the Late Cretaceous. The earliest fossils of Mosasaurus known to science were found as skulls in a chalk quarry near the Dutch city of Maastricht in the late 18th century, which were initially thought to have been the bones of crocodiles or whales. One skull discovered around 1780, and which was seized by France during the French Revolutionary Wars for its scientific value, was famously nicknamed the "great animal of Maastricht". In 1808, naturalist Georges Cuvier concluded that it belonged to a giant marine lizard with similarities to monitor lizards but otherwise unlike any known living animal. This concept was revolutionary at the time and helped support the then-developing ideas of extinction. Cuvier did not designate a scientific name for the new animal, and this was done by William Daniel Conybeare in 1822 when he named it Mosasaurus in reference to its origin in fossil deposits near the Meuse River. The exact affinities of Mosasaurus as a squamate remain controversial, and scientists continue to debate whether its closest living relatives are monitor lizards or snakes. Traditional interpretations have estimated the maximum length of the largest species, M. hoffmannii, to be up to 17.1 meters (56 ft), making it one of the largest mosasaurs, although some scientists consider this an overestimation with recent estimates suggesting a length closer to 13 meters (43 ft). The skull of Mosasaurus was equipped with robust jaws capable of swinging back and forth and strong muscles capable of powerful bites using dozens of large teeth adapted for cutting prey. Its four limbs were shaped into robust paddles to steer the animal underwater. Its tail was long and ended in a downward bend and a paddle-like fluke. Mosasaurus was a predator possessing excellent vision to compensate for its poor sense of smell, and a high metabolic rate suggesting it was endothermic ("warm-blooded"), an adaptation only found in mosasaurs among squamates. There is considerable morphological variability across the currently-recognized species in Mosasaurus—from the robustly-built M. hoffmannii to the slender and serpentine M. lemonnieri—but an unclear diagnosis (description of distinguishing features) of the type species M. hoffmannii led to a historically problematic classification. As a result, more than fifty different species have been attributed to the genus in the past. A redescription of the type specimen in 2017 helped resolve the taxonomy issue and confirmed at least five species to be within the genus. Another five species still nominally classified within Mosasaurus are planned to be reassessed in a future study. Fossil evidence suggests Mosasaurus inhabited much of the Atlantic Ocean and the seaways adjacent to it. Mosasaurus fossils have been found in places as diverse as North and South America, Europe, Africa, Western Asia, and Antarctica. This distribution encompassed a wide range of oceanic climates including tropical, subtropical, temperate, and subpolar climates. Mosasaurus was a common large predator in these oceans and was positioned at the top of the food chain. Paleontologists believe its diet would have included virtually any animal; it likely preyed on bony fish, sharks, cephalopods, birds, and other marine reptiles including sea turtles and other mosasaurs. It likely preferred to hunt in open water near the surface. From an ecological standpoint, Mosasaurus probably had a profound impact on the structuring of marine ecosystems; its arrival in some locations such as the Western Interior Seaway in North America coincides with a complete turnover of faunal assemblages and diversity. Mosasaurus faced competition with other large predatory mosasaurs such as Prognathodon and Tylosaurus—which were known to feed on similar prey—though they were able to coexist in the same ecosystems through niche partitioning. There were still conflicts among them, as an instance of Tylosaurus attacking a Mosasaurus has been documented. Several fossils document deliberate attacks on Mosasaurus individuals by members of the same species. Infighting likely took place in the form of snout grappling, similarly seen in modern crocodiles today.

cephalopods classification faunal

References

Martinus van Marum (1790) (in Dutch). Beschrijving der beenderen van den kop van eenen visch, gevonden in den St Pietersberg bij Maastricht, en geplaatst in Teylers Museum. 9. Verhandelingen Teylers Tweede Genootschap. pp. 383–389.
The exact year is not fully certain due to multiple contradicting claims. An examination of existing historical evidence by Pieters et al., (2012) suggested the most accurate date would be on or around 1780.[13] More recently, Limburg newspapers reported in 2015 that Ernst Homburg discovered a Liège magazine issued in the October 1778 reporting in detail a recent discovery of the second skull.[14]
Eric Mulder (2004). Maastricht Cretaceous finds and Dutch pioneers in vertebrate palaeontology. Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. pp. 165–176. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270286099.
Petrus Camper (1786). "Conjectures relative to the petrifactions found in St. Peter's Mountain near Maestricht". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 76 (2): 443–456. doi:10.1098/rstl.1786.0026. ISSN 2053-9223. https://dx.doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1786.0026
Florence F. J. M. Pieters (2009). "Natural history spoils in the Low Countries in 1794/95: the looting of the fossil Mosasaurus from Maastricht and the removal of the cabinet and menagerie of stadholder William V". Napoleon's legacy: the rise of national museums in Europe, 1794–1830. 27. Berlin: G+H Verlag. pp. 55–72. ISBN 978-3-940939-11-1. https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/1052778/79068_325600.pdf.
Florence Pieters; Peggy G. W. Rompen; John W. M. Jagt; Nathalie Bardet (2012). "A new look at Faujas de Saint-Fond's fantastic story on the provenance and acquisition of the type specimen of Mosasaurus hoffmanni MANTELL, 1829". Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France 183 (1): 55–65. doi:10.2113/gssgfbull.183.1.55. https://dx.doi.org/10.2113%2Fgssgfbull.183.1.55
Mike Everhart (May 14, 2010). "Mosasaurus hoffmanni-The First Discovery of a Mosasaur?". http://oceansofkansas.com/mosahoff.html.
Mark Evans (2010). "The roles played by museums, collections and collectors in the early history of reptile palaeontology". Geological Society, London, Special Publications 343 (1): 5–29. doi:10.1144/SP343.2. Bibcode: 2010GSLSP.343....5E. https://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2FSP343.2
hoffmannii was the original spelling used by Mantell, ending with -ii. Later authors began to drop the final letter and spelled it as hoffmanni, as became the trend for specific epithets of similar structure in later years. Recent scientists argue that the special etymological makeup of hoffmannii cannot be subjected to International Code of Zoological Nomenclature Articles 32.5, 33.4, or 34, which would normally protect similar respellings. This makes hoffmannii the valid spelling, although hoffmanni continues to be incorrectly used by many authors.[9]
Hallie P. Street (2016). A re-assessment of the genus Mosasaurus (Squamata: Mosasauridae) (PDF) (PhD). University of Alberta. doi:10.7939/R31N7XZ1K. https://era.library.ualberta.ca/items/53bb82a0-7a66-4afb-a26d-b611b5f86136/view/f59a5ee9-9c57-4409-9988-5c8958216f80/Street_Hallie_P_201604_PhD.pdf
Mike Everhart (October 21, 2013). "The Goldfuss Mosasaur". http://oceansofkansas.com/Goldfuss.html.
Richard Ellis (2003). Sea Dragons: Predators of the Prehistoric Oceans. University Press of Kansas. pp. 216. ISBN 978-0-7006-1394-6.
Robert W. Meredith; James E. Martin; Paul N. Wegleitner (2007). The largest mosasaur (Squamata: Mosasauridae) from the Missouri River area (Late Cretaceous; Pierre Shale Group) of South Dakota and its relationship to Lewis and Clark. The Geological Society of America. pp. 209–214. https://www.montclair.edu/profilepages/media/5008/user/Meredith,_Martin_2007_The_largest_mosasaur_(Squamata_Mosasauridae)_from_the_Missouri_River_area_(Late_Cretaceous_Pierre_Shale_Group)_of_South_Dakota_and_its_relationship_to_Lewis.pdf.
Because the genus Mosasaurus was not coined at the time, the original identifier, Samuel L. Mitchill, described the fossil as a lizard monster or saurian animal resembling the famous fossil reptile of Maestricht [sic]."[23] Cuvier doubted whether the two specimens were related. The congeneric relationship was eventually confirmed by James Ellsworth De Kay in 1830,[23] and the New Jersey fossil was named Mosasaurus dekayi in his honor.[24] The taxon was declared a nomen dubium in 2005,[2] and other fossils attributed to it were reidentified as M. hoffmannii.[25]
James Ellsworth De Kay (1830). "On the Remains of Extinct Reptiles of the genera Mosasaurus and Geosaurus found in the secondary formation of New-Jersey; and on the occurrence of the substance recently named Coprolite by Dr. Buckland, in the same locality". Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York 3: 134–141. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/15987.
Richard Harlan (1834). "Notice of the Discovery of the Remains of the Ichthyosaurus in Missouri, N. A.". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 4: 405–408. doi:10.2307/1004839. https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F1004839
Richard Harlan (1839). "Notice of the discovery of Basilosaurus and Batrachiotherium". Proceedings of the Geological Society of London 3: 23–24. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/96958#page/45.
Edward Drinker Cope (1881). "A new species of Clidastes from New Jersey". American Naturalist 15: 587–588. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/41416605#page/601/mode/1up.
Takehito Ikejiri; Spencer G. Lucas (2014). "Osteology and taxonomy of Mosasaurus conodon Cope 1881 from the Late Cretaceous of North America". Netherlands Journal of Geosciences 94 (1): 39–54. doi:10.1017/njg.2014.28. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271528820.
Donald Baird; Gerard R. Case (1966). "Rare marine reptiles from the Cretaceous of New Jersey". Journal of Paleontology 40 (5): 1211–1215.
Adriaan Gilles Camper (1812). "Mémoire sur quelques parties moins connues du squelette des sauriens fossiles de Maestricht" (in French). Annales du Muséum d'histoire naturelle 19: 215–241. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/23270#page/243/mode/1up.
Louis Dollo (1889). "Première note sur les Mosasauriens de Mesvin" (in French). Bulletin de la Société belge de géologie, de paléontologie et d'hydrologie 3: 271–304. ISSN 0037-8909. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/173416#page/879/mode/1up.
Theagarten Lingham-Soliar (2000). "The Mosasaur Mosasaurus lemonnieri (Lepidosauromorpha, Squamata) from the Upper Cretaceous of Belgium and The Netherlands". Paleontological Journal 34 (suppl. 2): S225–S237.
Pablo Gonzalez Ruiz; Marta S. Fernandez; Marianella Talevi; Juan M. Leardi; Marcelo A. Reguero (2019). "A new Plotosaurini mosasaur skull from the upper Maastrichtian of Antarctica. Plotosaurini paleogeographic occurrences". Cretaceous Research 103 (2019): 104166. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2019.06.012. https://rid.unrn.edu.ar/jspui/handle/20.500.12049/5094.
Dale A. Russell (1967). Systematics and morphology of American mosasaurs. 23. Bulletin of the Peabody Museum of Natural History. pp. 1–124. https://images.peabody.yale.edu/publications/bulletin/Bulletin23_1967.pdf.
Daniel Madzia (2019). "Dental variability and distinguishability in Mosasaurus lemonnieri (Mosasauridae) from the Campanian and Maastrichtian of Belgium, and implications for taxonomic assessments of mosasaurid dentitions". Historical Biology 32 (10): 1–15. doi:10.1080/08912963.2019.1588892. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F08912963.2019.1588892
Nathalie Bardet; Xabier Pereda Suberbiola; Mohamed Iarochene; Fatima Bouyahyaoui; Baadi Bouya; Mbarek Amaghzaz (2004). "Mosasaurus beaugei Arambourg, 1952 (Squamata, Mosasauridae) from the Late Cretaceous phosphates of Morocco". Geobios 37 (2004): 315–324. doi:10.1016/j.geobios.2003.02.006. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.geobios.2003.02.006
Eric Mulder; Bert Theunissen (1986). "Hermann Schlegel's investigation of the Maastricht mosasaurs". Archives of Natural History 13 (1): 1–6. doi:10.3366/anh.1986.13.1.1. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250229242.
Mark Witton (May 17, 2019). "The science of the Crystal Palace Dinosaurs, part 2: Teleosaurus, pterosaurs and Mosasaurus". http://markwitton-com.blogspot.com/2019/05/the-science-of-crystal-palace-dinosaurs.html.
Emily Osterloff. "The world's first dinosaur park: what the Victorians got right and wrong". https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/crystal-palace-dinosaurs.html.
Dimitry V. Grigoriev (2014). "Giant Mosasaurus hoffmanni (Squamata, Mosasauridae) from the Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) of Penza, Russia". Proceedings of the Zoological Institute RAS 318 (2): 148–167. doi:10.31610/trudyzin/2014.318.2.148. https://www.zin.ru/journals/trudyzin/doc/vol_318_2/TZ_318_2_Grigoriev.pdf.
Johan Lindgren; Michael W. Caldwell; Takuya Konishi; Luis M. Chiappe (2010). "Convergent Evolution in Aquatic Tetrapods: Insights from an Exceptional Fossil Mosasaur". PLOS ONE 5 (8): e11998. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0011998. PMID 20711249. Bibcode: 2010PLoSO...511998L. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2918493
Michael W. Caldwell (2012). "A challenge to categories: "What, if anything, is a mosasaur?"". Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France 183 (1): 17–34. doi:10.2113/gssgfbull.183.1.7. https://dx.doi.org/10.2113%2Fgssgfbull.183.1.7
Johan Lindgren; Michael J. Polcyn; Bruce A. Young (2011). "Landlubbers to leviathans: evolution of swimming in mosasaurine mosasaurs". Paleobiology 37 (3): 445–469. doi:10.1666/09023.1. https://dx.doi.org/10.1666%2F09023.1
Lingham-Soliar may have misapplied the ratio. His calculations interpreted "body length" as the length of the postcranial body, not the total length of the animal as demonstrated in Russell (1967), This erroneously inflated the estimate by 10%.[34][44]
Theagarten Lingham-Soliar (1995). "Anatomy and functional morphology of the largest marine reptile known, Mosasaurus hoffmanni (Mosasauridae, Reptilia) from the Upper Cretaceous, Upper Maastrichtian of The Netherlands". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 347 (1320): 155–172. doi:10.1098/rstb.1995.0019. Bibcode: 1995RSPTB.347..155L. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rstb.1995.0019.
Terri J. Cleary; Roger B. J. Benson; Susan E. Evans; Paul M. Barrett (2018). "Lepidosaurian diversity in the Mesozoic–Palaeogene: the potential roles of sampling biases and environmental drivers". Royal Society Open Science 5: 171830. doi:10.1098/rsos.171830. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/full/10.1098/rsos.171830.
Fedrico Fanti; Andrea Cau; Alessandra Negri (2014). "A giant mosasaur (Reptilia, Squamata) with an unusually twisted dentition from the Argille Scagliose Complex (late Campanian) of Northern Italy". Cretaceous Research 49 (2014): 91–104. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2014.01.003. https://www.disva.univpm.it/sites/www.disva.univpm.it/files/disva/news_dipartimento/cretaceus%20research.pdf.
Paul, Gregory S. (2022). The Princeton Field Guide to Mesozoic Sea Reptiles. Princeton University Press. pp. 175–176. ISBN 9780691193809.
Michael Everhart; John W. M. Jagt; Eric W. A. Mulder; Anne S. Schulp (2016). "Mosasaurs—how large did they really get?". 5th Triennial Mosasaur Meeting—A Global Perspective on Mesozoic Marine Amniotes. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303518964.
Louis Dollo (1892). "Nouvelle note sur l'osteologie des mosasauriens" (in French). Bulletin de la Société belge de géologie, de paléontologie et d'hydrologie 6: 219–259. ISSN 0037-8909. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/159811#page/543.
Michael J. Polcyn; Louis L. Jacobs; Ricardo Araújo; Anne S.Schulp; Octávio Mateus (2014). "Physical drivers of mosasaur evolution". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 400 (15): 17–27. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.05.018. Bibcode: 2014PPP...400...17P. https://docentes.fct.unl.pt/sites/default/files/omateus/files/polcyn_et_al_2014_physical_drivers_mosasaurs.pdf.
Michael D. D'Emic; Kathlyn M. Smith; Zachary T. Ansley (2015). "Unusual histology and morphology of the ribs of mosasaurs (Squamata)". Palaeontology 58 (3): 511–520. doi:10.1111/pala.12157. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fpala.12157
Carolyn Gramling (October 26, 2016). "Ancient sea monster battle revealed in unusual fossil". Science. doi:10.1126/science.aal0310. https://www.science.org/content/article/ancient-sea-monster-battle-revealed-unusual-fossil.
Nathalie Bardet; Alexandra Houssaye; Peggy Vincent; Xabier Pereda Suberbiola; M'barek Amaghzaz; Essaid Jourani; Saïd Meslouh (2015). "Mosasaurids (Squamata) from the Maastrichtian Phosphates of Morocco: Biodiversity, palaeobiogeography and palaeoecology based on tooth morphoguilds". Gondwana Research 27 (3): 1068–1078. doi:10.1016/j.gr.2014.08.014. Bibcode: 2015GondR..27.1068B. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.gr.2014.08.014
Hallie P. Street; Michael W. Caldwell (2017). "Rediagnosis and redescription of Mosasaurus hoffmannii (Squamata: Mosasauridae) and an assessment of species assigned to the genus Mosasaurus". Geological Magazine 154 (3): 521–557. doi:10.1017/S0016756816000236. Bibcode: 2017GeoM..154..521S. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303090121.
Also known as the internarial bar[44]
Michael W. Caldwell; Gorden L. Bell Jr. (2005). "Of German princes and North American rivers: Harlan's lost mosasaur snout rediscovered". Netherlands Journal of Geosciences 84 (3): 207–211. doi:10.1017/S0016774600020989. https://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS0016774600020989
Michael J. Everhart (January 1, 2010). "Mosasaur brain". http://oceansofkansas.com/mosabrain.html.
Takuya Konishi; Michael Newbrey; Michael Caldwell (2014). "A small, exquisitely preserved specimen of Mosasaurus missouriensis (Squamata, Mosasauridae) from the upper Campanian of the Bearpaw Formation, western Canada, and the first stomach contents for the genus". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 34 (4): 802–819. doi:10.1080/02724634.2014.838573. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F02724634.2014.838573
Anne S. Schulp; Hubert B. Vonhof; Jeroen van der Lubbe; Renée Janssen; Remy R. van Baal (2013). "On diving and diet: resource partitioning in type-Maastrichtian mosasaurs". Netherlands Journal of Geosciences 92 (2–3): 165–170. doi:10.1017/S001677460000010X. https://dx.doi.org/10.1017%2FS001677460000010X
Anne S. Schulp; Michael J. Polcyn; Octavio Mateus; Louis L. Jacobs; Maria Lusia Morais; Tatiana da Silva Tavares (2006). "New mosasaur material from the Maastrichtian of Angola, with notes on the phylogeny, distribution, and paleoecology of the genus Prognathodon". Publicaties van Het Natuurhistorisch Genootschap in Limburg 45 (1): 57–67. ISSN 0374-955X. https://docentes.fct.unl.pt/sites/default/files/omateus/files/schulp_polcyn_mateus_jacobs_et_al_2006_new_mosasaur_material_from_the_maastrichtian_of_angola_with_notes_on_the_phylogeny_distribution_and_palaeoecology_of_the_genus_prognathodon.pdf.
One specimen traditionally attributed to M. lemonnieri has serration-like features in its cutting edges. Scientists believe this specimen likely belongs to a different species.[35]
The number of prisms in M. conodon and number of lingual prisms in M. lemonnieri are uncertain.[36]
Clint A. Boyd (2017). "A New Addition to the Cretaceous Seaway of North Dakota". Geo News (North Dakota Geological Society) 44 (1): 20–23. https://www.dmr.nd.gov/ndgs/documents/newsletter/2017Winter/A%20New%20Addition%20to%20the%20Cretaceous%20Seaway%20of%20North%20Dakota.pdf.
Mike Everhart (March 26, 2009). "Samuel Wilson's Mosasaurus horridus". http://oceansofkansas.com/page12c.html.
Michael W. Caldwell (2007). "Ontogeny, anatomy and attachment of the dentition in mosasaurs (Mosasauridae: Squamata)". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 149 (4): 687–700. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2007.00280.x. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1096-3642.2007.00280.x
This study was conducted on only one tooth and may not represent the exact durations of dentinogenesis in all Mosasaurus teeth.[60]
Anusuya Chinsamy; Cemal Tunoǧlu; Daniel B. Thomas (2012). "Dental microstructure and geochemistry of Mosasaurus hoffmanni (Squamata: Mosasauridae) from the Late Cretaceous of Turkey". Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France 183 (2): 85–92. doi:10.2113/gssgfbull.183.2.85. https://dx.doi.org/10.2113%2Fgssgfbull.183.2.85
The number of caudal vertebrae is not fully certain for M. conodon and M. hoffmannii. At least ten have been documented in M. conodon, while the count is completely unknown in M. hoffmannii.[11]
Johan Lindgren; Hani F. Kaddumi; Michael J. Polcyn (2013). "Soft tissue preservation in a fossil marine lizard with a bilobed tail fin". Nature Communications 4 (2423): 2423. doi:10.1038/ncomms3423. PMID 24022259. Bibcode: 2013NatCo...4.2423L. https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms3423#citeas.
Street & Caldwell (2017) also included M. dekayi as a potentially valid species without addressing[5] it's dubious status.[25]
Street & Caldwell (2017) revised this assessment of M. beaugei and found it to be a distinct species based on additional anatomical distinctions.[5]
As the proposal remains restricted to a PhD thesis, it is defined as an unpublished work per Article 8 of the ICZN and therefore is not yet formally valid.[62][63]
Natalia B. Ananjeva (2019). "Current State of the Problems in the Phylogeny of Squamate Reptiles (Squamata, Reptilia)". Biology Bulletin Reviews 9 (2): 119–128. doi:10.1134/s2079086419020026. https://dx.doi.org/10.1134%2Fs2079086419020026
Aaron R. H. LeBlanc; Michael W. Caldwell; Nathalie Bardet (2012). "A new mosasaurine from the Maastrichtian (Upper Cretaceous) phosphates of Morocco and its implications for mosasaurine systematics". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 32 (1): 82–104. doi:10.1080/02724634.2012.624145. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F02724634.2012.624145
Some studies such as Madzia & Cau (2017) also recover Prognathodon and Plesiotylosaurus within the Mosasaurini.[66]
Hallie P. Street (2017). "Reassessing Mosasaurini based on a systematic revision of Mosasaurus". Vertebrate Anatomy Morphology Palaeontology 4: 42. ISSN 2292-1389. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317004037.
Gorden L. Bell Jr. (1997). "A Phylogenetic Revision of North American and Adriatic Mosasauroidea". Ancient Marine Reptiles. Academic Press. pp. 293–332. doi:10.1016/b978-012155210-7/50017-x. ISBN 978-0-12-155210-7. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-012155210-7%2F50017-x
M. maximus is a North American taxon Russell (1967) recognized as a distinct species.[34] It is now generally recognized as a junior synonym of M. hoffmannii, although some scientists maintain the taxon is a distinct species.[5][7]
maximus-hoffmannii was the wording used in Russell (1967); this is in recognition of the belief of a close relationship between the two species.[34]
Daniel Madzia; Andrea Cau (2017). "Inferring 'weak spots' in phylogenetic trees: application to mosasauroid nomenclature". PeerJ 5: e3782. doi:10.7717/peerj.3782. PMID 28929018. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=5602675
Tiago R. Simões; Oksana Vernygora; Ilaria Paparella; Paulina Jimenez-Huidobro; Michael W. Caldwell (2017). "Mosasauroid phylogeny under multiple phylogenetic methods provides new insights on the evolution of aquatic adaptations in the group". PLOS ONE 12 (5): e0176773. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0176773. PMID 28467456. Bibcode: 2017PLoSO..1276773S. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=5415187
Dimitry V. Grigoriev (2013). "Redescription of Prognathodon lutugini (Squamata, Mosasauridae)". Proceedings of the Zoological Institute RAS 317 (3): 246–261. http://www.zin.ru/Journals/trudyzin/doc/vol_317_3/TZ_317_3_Grigoriev.pdf.
Jack L. Conrad (2008). "Phylogeny And Systematics Of Squamata (Reptilia) Based On Morphology". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 310: 1–182. doi:10.1206/310.1. https://dx.doi.org/10.1206%2F310.1
"Inertial feeding in reptiles: the role of skull mass reduction". 2002. https://sicb.burkclients.com/meetings/2002/schedule/abstractdetails.php3?id=429.
Theagarten Lingham-Soliar (1991). "Locomotion in mosasaurs". Modern Geology 16: 229–248.
Alexandra Houssaye; Johan Lindgren; Rodrigo Pellegrini; Andrew H. Lee; Damien Germain; Michael J. Polcyn (2013). "Microanatomical and Histological Features in the Long Bones of Mosasaurine Mosasaurs (Reptilia, Squamata) – Implications for Aquatic Adaptation and Growth Rates". PLOS ONE 8 (10): e76741. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076741. PMID 24146919. Bibcode: 2013PLoSO...876741H. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=3797777
The 2018 MS thesis of Cyrus Green disputes the notion that Clidastes was an endotherm based on the skeletochronology of the genus, finding its growth rates to be too low to be endothermic and instead similar to ectotherms. The dissertation argued that the high body temperatures calculated in pro-endotherm studies were a result of gigantothermy. However, only four specimens were studied.[75]
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A dubious taxon that may represent various mosasaurs such as Gavialimimus or Platecarpus somenensis[100]
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